Introduction to the Physics and Techniques of Remote Sensing

ISBN-13: 9781119523017 / Angielski / Twarda / 2021 / 560 str.

Charles Elachi; Jakob J. Van Zyl

Spis treści

Preface xv1 Introduction 11.1 Types and Classes of Remote Sensing Data 11.2 Brief History of Remote Sensing 61.3 Remote Sensing Space Platforms 131.4 Transmission Through the Earth and Planetary Atmospheres 15References and Further Reading 182 Nature and Properties of Electromagnetic Waves 192.1 Fundamental Properties of Electromagnetic Waves 192.1.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum 192.1.2 Maxwell's Equations 202.1.3 Wave Equation and Solution 212.1.4 Quantum Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation 212.1.5 Polarization 222.1.6 Coherency 252.1.7 Group and Phase Velocity 262.1.8 Doppler Effect 272.2 Nomenclature and Definition of Radiation Quantities 302.2.1 Radiation Quantities 302.2.2 Spectral Quantities 312.2.3 Luminous Quantities 322.3 Generation of Electromagnetic Radiation 322.4 Detection of Electromagnetic Radiation 342.5 Interaction of Electromagnetic Waves with Matter: Quick Overview 352.6 Interaction Mechanisms Throughout the Electromagnetic Spectrum 38Exercises 42References and Further Reading 433 Solid Surfaces Sensing in the Visible and Near Infrared 443.1 Source Spectral Characteristics 443.2 Wave-Surface Interaction Mechanisms 473.2.1 Reflection, Transmission, and Scattering 483.2.2 Vibrational Processes 513.2.3 Electronic Processes 543.2.4 Fluorescence 593.3 Signature of Solid Surface Materials 613.3.1 Signature of Geologic Materials 613.3.2 Signature of Biologic Materials 623.3.3 Depth of Penetration 673.4 Passive Imaging Sensors 703.4.1 Imaging Basics 703.4.2 Sensor Elements 713.4.3 Detectors 763.5 Types of Imaging Systems 813.6 Description of Some Visible/Infrared Imaging Sensors 843.6.1 Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) 843.6.2 Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) 873.6.3 Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) 893.6.4 Mars Exploration Rover Panchromatic Camera (Pancam) 903.6.5 Cassini Imaging Instrument 913.6.6 Juno Imaging System 933.6.7 Europa Imaging System 933.6.8 Cassini Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) 943.6.9 Chandrayaan Imaging Spectrometer M3 953.6.10 Sentinel Multispectral Imager 953.6.11 Airborne Visible-Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) 953.7 Active Sensors 963.8 Surface Sensing at Very Short Wavelengths 973.8.1 Radiation Sources 983.8.2 Detection 983.9 Image Data Analysis 993.9.1 Detection and Delineation 1003.9.2 Classification 1073.9.3 Identification 110Exercises 113References and Further Reading 1174 Solid-Surface Sensing: Thermal Infrared 1214.1 Thermal Radiation Laws 1214.1.1 Emissivity of Natural Terrain 1234.1.2 Emissivity from the Sun and Planetary Surfaces 1244.2 Heat Conduction Theory 1264.3 Effect of Periodic Heating 1284.4 Use of Thermal Emission in Surface Remote Sensing 1314.4.1 Surface Heating by the Sun 1314.4.2 Effect of Surface Cover 1334.4.3 Separation of Surface Units Based on Their Thermal Signature 1354.4.4 Example of Application in Geology 1354.4.5 Effects of Clouds on Thermal Infrared Sensing 1354.5 Use of Thermal Infrared Spectral Signature in Sensing 1374.6 Thermal Infrared Sensors 1414.6.1 Heat Capacity Mapping Radiometer 1434.6.2 Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner 1454.6.3 ASTER Thermal Infrared Imager 1454.6.4 Spitzer Space Telescope 1494.6.5 2001 Mars Odyssey Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) 1504.6.6 Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) 151Exercises 154References and Further Reading 1565 Solid-Surface Sensing: Microwave Emission 1595.1 Power-Temperature Correspondence 1605.2 Simple Microwave Radiometry Models 1615.2.1 Effects of Polarization 1635.2.2 Effects of the Observation Angle 1635.2.3 Effects of the Atmosphere 1645.2.4 Effects of Surface Roughness 1645.3 Applications and Use in Surface Sensing 1655.3.1 Application in Polar Ice Mapping 1655.3.2 Application in Soil Moisture Mapping 1665.3.3 Measurement Ambiguity 1705.4 Description of Microwave Radiometers 1705.4.1 Antenna and Scanning Configuration for Real-Aperture Radiometers 1715.4.2 Synthetic Aperture Radiometers 1725.4.3 Receiver Subsystems 1775.4.4 Data Processing 1795.5 Examples of Developed Radiometers 1805.5.1 Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR) 1805.5.2 Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) 1815.5.3 Tropical Rainfall Mapping Mission Microwave Imager (TMI) 1835.5.4 AMSR-E 1845.5.5 SMAP Radiometer 185Exercises 185References and Further Reading 1876 Solid-Surface Sensing: Microwave and Radio Frequencies 1906.1 Surface Interaction Mechanism 1906.1.1 Surface Scattering Models 1926.1.2 Absorption Losses and Volume Scattering 1976.1.3 Effects of Polarization 2006.1.4 Effects of the Frequency 2026.1.5 Effects of the Incidence Angle 2056.1.6 Scattering from Natural Terrain 2066.2 Basic Principles of Radar Sensors 2096.2.1 Antenna Beam Characteristics 2096.2.2 Signal Properties: Spectrum 2136.2.3 Signal Properties: Modulation 2166.2.4 Range Measurements and Discrimination 2186.2.5 Doppler (Velocity) Measurement and Discrimination 2216.2.6 High-Frequency Signal Generation 2226.3 Imaging Sensors: Real Aperture Radars 2246.3.1 Imaging Geometry 2246.3.2 Range Resolution 2256.3.3 Azimuth Resolution 2256.3.4 Radar Equation 2266.3.5 Signal Fading 2276.3.6 Fading Statistics 2296.3.7 Geometric Distortion 2326.4 Imaging Sensors: Synthetic Aperture Radars 2346.4.1 Synthetic Array Approach 2346.4.2 Focused vs. Unfocused SAR 2356.4.3 Doppler Synthesis Approach 2376.4.4 SAR Imaging Coordinate System 2396.4.5 Ambiguities and Artifacts 2406.4.6 Point Target Response 2436.4.7 Correlation with Point Target Response 2466.4.8 Advanced SAR Techniques 2486.4.9 Description of SAR Sensors and Missions 2656.4.10 Applications of Imaging Radars 2786.5 Nonimaging Radar Sensors: Scatterometers 2956.5.1 Examples of Scatterometer Instruments 2956.5.2 Examples of Scatterometer Data 3036.6 Nonimaging Radar Sensors: Altimeters 3046.6.1 Examples of Altimeter Instruments 3076.6.2 Altimeter Applications 3106.6.3 Imaging Altimetry 3126.6.4 Wide Swath Ocean Altimeter 3146.7 Nonconventional Radar Sensors 3176.8 Subsurface Sounding 317Exercises 320References and Further Reading 3237 Ocean Surface Sensing 3347.1 Physical Properties of the Ocean Surface 3347.1.1 Tides and Currents 3357.1.2 Surface Waves 3367.2 Mapping of the Ocean Topography 3397.2.1 Geoid Measurement 3397.2.2 Surface Wave Effects 3437.2.3 Surface Wind Effects 3457.2.4 Dynamic Ocean Topography 3457.2.5 Ancillary Measurements 3497.3 Surface Wind Mapping 3517.3.1 Observations Required 3527.3.2 Nadir Observations 3557.4 Ocean Surface Imaging 3567.4.1 Radar Imaging Mechanisms 3567.4.2 Examples of Ocean Features on Radar Images 3597.4.3 Imaging of Sea Ice 3617.4.4 Ocean Color Mapping 3637.4.5 Ocean Surface Temperature Mapping 3657.4.6 Ocean Salinity Mapping 370Exercises 371References and Further Reading 3728 Basic Principles of Atmospheric Sensing and Radiative Transfer 3778.1 Physical Properties of the Atmosphere 3778.2 Atmospheric Composition 3808.3 Particulates and Clouds 3818.4 Wave Interaction Mechanisms in Planetary Atmospheres 3838.4.1 Resonant Interactions 3838.4.2 Spectral Line Shape 3878.4.3 Nonresonant Absorption 3898.4.4 Nonresonant Emission 3918.4.5 Wave Particle Interaction, Scattering 3918.4.6 Wave Refraction 3928.5 Optical Thickness 3928.6 Radiative Transfer Equation 3938.7 Case of a Nonscattering Plane Parallel Atmosphere 3958.8 Basic Concepts of Atmospheric Remote Sounding 3968.8.1 Basic Concept of Temperature Sounding 3978.8.2 Basic Concept for Composition Sounding 3998.8.3 Basic Concept for Pressure Sounding 3998.8.4 Basic Concept of Density Measurement 3998.8.5 Basic Concept of Wind Measurement 399Exercises 400References and Further Reading 4019 Atmospheric Remote Sensing in the Microwave Region 4039.1 Microwave Interactions with Atmospheric Gases 4039.2 Basic Concept of Downlooking Sensors 4049.2.1 Temperature Sounding 4069.2.2 Constituent Density Profile: Case of Water Vapor 4089.3 Basic Concept for Uplooking Sensors 4119.4 Basic Concept for Limblooking Sensors 4129.5 Inversion Concepts 4159.6 Basic Elements of Passive Microwave Sensors 4189.7 Surface Pressure Sensing 4209.8 Atmospheric Sounding by Occultation 4209.9 Microwave Scattering by Atmospheric Particles 4249.10 Radar Sounding of Rain 4249.11 Radar Equation for Precipitation Measurement 4279.12 The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) 4289.13 Rain Cube 4299.14 CloudSat 4299.15 Cassini Microwave Radiometer 4339.16 Juno Microwave Radiometer (MWR) 433Exercises 433References and Further Reading 43410 Millimeter and Submillimeter Sensing of Atmospheres 44010.1 Interaction with Atmospheric Constituents 44010.2 Downlooking Sounding 44210.3 Limb Sounding 44410.4 Elements of a Millimeter Sounder 44710.5 Submillimeter Atmospheric Sounder 453Exercises 455References and Further Reading 45611 Atmospheric Remote Sensing in the Visible and Infrared 45811.1 Interaction of Visible and Infrared Radiation with the Atmosphere 45811.1.1 Visible and Near-Infrared Radiation 45811.1.2 Thermal Infrared Radiation 46111.1.3 Resonant Interactions 46311.1.4 Effects of Scattering by Particulates 46311.2 Downlooking Sounding 46611.2.1 General Formulation for Emitted Radiation 46611.2.2 Temperature Profile Sounding 46711.2.3 Simple Case Weighting Functions 46911.2.4 Weighting Functions for Off-Nadir Observations 47011.2.5 Composition Profile Sounding 47111.3 Limb Sounding 47211.3.1 Limb Sounding by Emission 47211.3.2 Limb Sounding by Absorption 47411.3.3 Illustrative Example: Pressure Modulator Radiometer 47411.3.4 Illustrative Example: Fourier Transform Spectroscopy 47611.4 Sounding of Atmospheric Motion 47911.4.1 Passive Techniques 47911.4.2 Passive Imaging of Velocity Field: Helioseismology 48211.4.3 Multi-Angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR) 48411.4.4 Multi-Angle Imager for Aerosols (MAIA) 48811.4.5 Active Techniques 48911.5 Laser Measurement of Wind 48911.6 Atmospheric Sensing at Very Short Wavelengths 490Exercises 491References and Further Reading 49212 Ionospheric Sensing 49712.1 Properties of Planetary Ionospheres 49712.2 Wave Propagation in Ionized Media 49812.3 Ionospheric Profile Sensing by Topside Sounding 50112.4 Ionospheric Profile by Radio Occultation 503Exercises 505References and Further Reading 506Appendix A: Use of Multiple Sensors for Surface Observations 507Appendix B: Summary of Orbital Mechanics Relevant to Remote Sensing 511Appendix C: Simplified Weighting Functions 521Appendix D: Compression of a Linear FM Chirp Signal 524Index 528

O autorze

CHARLES ELACHI, PHD, is a Professor of electrical engineering and planetary science at Caltech. He was the Director of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory from 2001 to 2016. He played the leading role in the development of five Earth Orbiting Shuttle Imaging Radar missions and the Cassini Titan Radar mapping instrument. He taught the Physics of Remote Sensing at Caltech from 1982 to 2002.JAKOB VAN ZYL, PHD, occupied numerous leadership positions at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory including the Radar Section, Planetary Exploration Program, Astronomy and Physics Program and as the Associate Director for advanced missions. He taught the Physics of Remote Sensing at Caltech from 2002 to 2020.