Introduction to Aerospace Engineering: Basic Principles of Flight

ISBN-13: 9781119807155 / Angielski / Twarda / 2021 / 256 str.

Ethirajan Rathakrishnan

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Preface viiAbout the Author viii1 Basics 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Overview 21.3 Modern Era 31.3.1 Actual Flights 51.3.2 Compressibility Issues 51.3.3 Supersonic Speeds 71.3.4 Continuity Concept 91.4 Conservation Laws 91.4.1 Conservation of Mass 91.4.2 Conservation of Momentum 101.4.3 Conservation of Energy 111.5 Incompressible Aerodynamics 111.5.1 Subsonic flow 121.6 Compressible Aerodynamics 121.6.1 Transonic Flow 121.6.2 Supersonic Flow 131.6.3 Hypersonic Flow 131.7 Vocabulary 141.7.1 Boundary Layers 141.7.2 Turbulence 141.8 Aerodynamics in Other Fields 141.9 Summary 152 International Standard Atmosphere 212.1 Layers in the ISA 222.1.1 ICAO Standard Atmosphere 222.1.2 Temperature Modeling 232.2 Pressure Modelling 242.2.1 Pressure above the Tropopause 262.3 Density Modeling 262.3.1 Other standard atmospheres 332.4 Relative Density 332.5 Altimeter 342.6 Summary 343 Aircraft Configurations 373.1 Structure 383.2 Propulsion 383.3 Summary 404 Low-Speed Aerofoils 434.1 Introduction 434.2 The Aerofoil 434.3 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments on an Aerofoil 444.4 Force and Moment Coefficients 454.5 Pressure Distribution 464.6 Variation of Pressure Distribution with Incidence Angle 504.7 The Lift Curve Slope 514.8 Profile Drag 534.9 Pitching Moment 544.10 Movement of Center of Pressure 584.11 Finite or Three-Dimensional Wing 594.12 Geometrical Parameters of a Finite Wing 594.12.1 Leading-edge Radius and Chord Line 604.12.2 Mean Camber Line 604.12.3 Thickness Distribution 604.12.4 Trailing-Edge Angle 614.13 Wing Geometrical Parameters 614.14 Span wise Flow Variation 654.15 Lift and Downwash 674.16 The Lift Curve of a Finite Wing 694.17 Induced Drag 714.18 The Total Drag of a Wing 744.19 Aspect Ratio Effect on Aerodynamic Characteristics 764.20 Pitching Moment 784.21 The Complete Aircraft 784.22 Straight and Level Flight 784.23 Total Drag 814.24 Reynolds Number Effect 824.25 Variation of Drag in Straight and Level Flight 834.26 The Minimum Power Condition 914.27 Minimum Drag - Velocity Ratio 924.28 The Stall 944.28.1 The Effect of Wing Section 944.28.2 Wing Planform Effect 954.29 The Effect of Protuberances 964.30 Summary 975 High-Lift Devices 1035.1 Introduction 1035.2 The Trailing Edge Flap 1045.3 The Plain Flap 1045.4 The Split Flap 1065.5 The Slotted Flap 1075.6 The Fowler Flap 1085.7 Comparison of Different Types of Flaps 1085.8 Flap Effect on Aerodynamic Center and Stability 1105.9 The Leading Edge Slat 1115.10 The Leading Edge Flap 1125.11 Boundary Layer Control 1145.11.1 Boundary Layer Blowing 1145.12 Boundary Layer Suction 1155.13 The Jet Flap 1165.14 Summary 1166 Thrust 1196.1 Introduction 1196.2 Thrust Generation 1206.2.1 Types of Jet Engines 1236.2.1.1 Turbojets 1236.2.1.2 Turboprops 1246.2.1.3 Turbofans 1256.2.1.4 Turboshafts 1266.2.1.5 Ramjets 1266.3 Turbojet 1266.4 Turboprop and Turboshaft Engines 1276.5 Ramjet and Scramjet 1286.6 The Ideal Ramjet 1306.7 Rocket Propulsion 1316.8 Propeller Engines 1326.9 Thrust and Momentum 1336.10 By-pass and Turbofan Engines 1336.11 The Propeller 1346.11.1 Working of a Propeller 1356.11.2 Helix Angle and Blade Angle 1366.11.3 Advance per Revolution 1376.11.4 Pitch of a Propeller 1386.11.5 Propeller Efficiency 1396.11.6 Tip Speed 1406.11.7 Variable Pitch 1416.11.8 Number and Shape of Blades 1426.12 The Slipstream 1436.13 Gyroscopic Effect 1446.14 Swing on Take-off 1446.15 Thermodynamic Cycles of Jet Propulsion 1446.15.1 Efficiency 1456.15.2 Brayton Cycle 1456.15.3 Ramjet Cycle 1466.15.4 Turbojet cycle 1476.15.5 Turbofan Cycle 1486.16 Summary 1487 Level Flight 1517.1 Introduction 1517.2 The Forces in Level Flight 1517.3 Equilibrium Condition 1527.4 Balancing the Forces 1537.4.1 Control Surface 1547.4.2 Tail-less and Tail-first Aircraft 1557.4.3 Forces on Tail Plane 1557.4.4 Effect of Downwash 1577.4.5 Varying the Tail Plane Lift 1577.4.6 Straight and Level Flight 1587.4.7 Relation between Flight Speed and Angle of Attack 1597.5 Range Maximum 1607.5.1 Flying with Minimum Drag 1617.6 Altitude Effect on Propeller Efficiency 1617.7 Wind Effect on Range 1627.8 Endurance of Flight 1637.9 Range Maximum 1637.10 Endurance of Jet Engine 1647.11 Summary 1658 Gliding 1678.1 Introduction 1678.2 Angle of Glide 1688.3 Effect of weight on Gliding 1698.4 Endurance of Glide 1698.5 Gliding Angle 1698.6 Landing 1708.7 Stalling Speed 1728.8 High Lift Aerofoils 1738.9 Wing Loading 1748.9.1 Calculation of Minimum Landing Speed 1758.10 Landing Speed 1778.11 Short and Vertical Take-off and Landing 1788.11.1 Gyroplane 1788.12 The Helicopter 1798.13 Jet Lift 1808.14 Hovercraft 1808.15 Landing 1808.16 Effect of Flaps on Trim 1828.17 Summary 1849 Performance 1879.1 Introduction 1879.2 Take-off 1879.3 Climbing 1889.4 Power Curves - Propeller Engine 1899.5 Maximum and Minimum Speeds in Horizontal Flight 1909.6 Effect of Engine Power Variation 1919.7 Flight Altitude Effect on Engine Power 1919.8 Ceiling 1939.9 Effect of Weight on Performance 1939.10 Jet Propulsion Effect on Performance 1959.11 Summary 19610 Stability and Control 19910.1 Introduction 19910.2 Longitudinal Stability 20110.3 Longitudinal Dihedral 20110.4 Lateral Stability 20310.4.1 Dihedral Angle 20310.4.2 High Wing and Low Center of Gravity 20510.4.3 Lateral Stability of Aircraft with Sweepback 20610.4.4 Fin Area and Lateral Stability 20610.5 Directional Stability 20710.6 Lateral and Directional Stability 20910.7 Control of an Aircraft 21010.8 Balanced Control 21110.9 Mass Balance 21410.10 Control at Low Speeds 21510.11 Power Controls 21910.12 Dynamic Stability 22010.13 Summary 22011 Manoeuvres 22311.1 Introduction 22311.2 Acceleration 22411.3 Pulling out from a Dive 22611.3.1 The Load Factor 22711.3.2 Turning 22811.3.3 Loads During a Turn 22911.4 Correct Angles of Bank 22911.5 Other Problems of Turning 23011.6 Steep Bank 23211.7 Aerobatics 23311.8 Inverted Manoeuvres 23811.9 Abnormal Weather 23911.10 Manoeuvrability 23911.11 Summary 24012 Rockets 24312.1 Introduction 24312.2 Chemical Rocket 24412.3 Engine design 24612.4 Thrust Generation 24812.5 Specific Impulse 24912.6 Rocket Equation 25012.7 Efficiency 25212.8 Trajectories 25312.8.1 Newton's Laws of Motion 25412.8.2 Newton's Laws of Gravitation 25412.8.3 Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion 25412.8.4 Some Important Equations of Orbital Dynamics 25512.8.5 Lagrange Points 25512.8.6 Hohmann Minimum-Energy Trajectory 25612.8.7 Gravity Assist 25612.9 High-Exhaust-Velocity, Low-Thrust Trajectories 25712.9.1 High-Exhaust-Velocity Rocket Equation 25812.10 Plasma and Electric Propulsion 25912.10.1 Types of Plasma Engines 26012.11 Pulsed Plasma Thruster 26112.11.1Operating Principle 26112.12 Summary 26512.13 Exercise Problems 267References 268Index 271

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Ethirajan Rathakrishnan, PhD, is a Professor of Aerospace Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, India, where he has more than 30 years' experience teaching Introduction to Aerospace Engineering courses at the undergraduate and graduate levels. He is the Editor-in-Chief for the International Review of Aerospace Engineering and the author of many books on aerospace and mechanical engineering topics. Professor Rathakrishnan is internationally-recognized for his research and development in the area of high-speed jets.