Hypertrophic Reservoirs for Wastewater Storage and Reuse: Ecology, Performance, and Engineering Design

ISBN-13: 9783642642623 / Angielski / Miękka / 2011 / 400 str.

Marcelo Juanico; Inka Dor

Opis

Reservoirs for Wastewater Storage and Reuse is a compendium of available information on this emergent technology, from the role that wastewater reservoirs can play within general water resources management and wastewater reuse policy, to the design and operation of the units, including removal efficiencies for different pollutants. Furthermore, a detailed description of the ecological structure and function of the ecosystem of reservoirs is given. This book summarizes more than 20 years of research and development in Israel where more than 200 of these reservoirs are in operation. It includes both theoretical developments and practical experience gained by designers, operators and farmers. Potential geographic areas for the use of these reservoirs are the whole Mediterranean region, the Pacific coasts of both South and North America, the Atlantic coasts of Africa, the Middle East, and other regions suffering water shortage.

Spis treści

I Limnology and Technology.- 1 Research and Development Policy.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 Background Data.- 1.2.1 Water Scarcity and Wastewater Reuse.- 1.2.2 Wastewater Reclamation Plan.- 1.2.3 Surface Wastewater Reservoirs.- 1.3 R&D Support.- 1.3.1 The R&D Policy.- 1.3.2 Overview of the Ongoing R&D Programme.- 1.4 Results Dissemination.- 1.5 Discussion.- References.- 2 Wastewater Storage and Reuse for Irrigation in Israel.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Wastewater Treatment.- 2.2.1 Pretreatment.- 2.2.2 Treatment: Conventional Processes.- 2.2.3 Advanced Treatment.- 2.3 Sewage Treatment and Reuse in Israel.- 2.4 Main Water Reclamation Projects in Israel.- 2.5 Effect of Irrigation with Treated Sewage Effluent on Soil, Crops and Environment.- References.- 3 Health and Treatment Requirements for Wastewater Irrigation.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 The Development of Wastewater Recycling and Reuse.- 3.2.1 Early Major Wastewater Irrigation Projects.- 3.2.2 Present Status of Interest in Wastewater Recycling and Reuse.- 3.3 Public Health Risks Associated with Wastewater Irrigation.- 3.3.1 Pathogenic Microorganisms in Wastewater.- 3.3.2 Survival of Pathogens in the Environment.- 3.3.3 Proposed Model to Predict the Relative Effectiveness of Pathogens in Causing Infections Through Wastewater Irrigation.- 3.4 Evaluation of the Epidemiological Evidence of Human Health Effects Associated with Wastewater Irrigation.- 3.4.1 Early Microbial Guidelines for Wastewater Irrigation Lack Epidemiological Basis.- 3.4.2 Population Groups Consuming Vegetables and Salad Crops Irrigated with Raw Wastewater.- 3.4.3 Health Effects among Sewage Farm Workers.- 3.4.4 Health Effects among Population Groups Residing Near Wastewater-Irrigated Fields.- 3.4.5 Reduction in Negative Health Effects by Wastewater Treatment.- 3.4.6 Implications for Developing Countries.- 3.5 Evaluating Health Guidelines for Recycling Wastewater in Agriculture.- 3.5.1 Scientific, Historical, and Social Influences.- 3.5.2 The Engelberg Report and the New WHO Guidelines.- 3.5.3 The USEPA/USAID Recommended Wastewater Reuse Guidelines.- 3.5.4 A Risk Assessment/Cost-Effectiveness Approach for Comparing the Various Guidelines.- 3.6 Reduction of Health Risks by Various Agronomic Technics.- 3.6.1 Restricting Crops.- 3.6.2 Modification and Control of Irrigation Techniques.- 3.7 Appropriate Low-Cost Methods of Wastewater Treatment for Irrigation.- 3.7.1 Goals of Wastewater Treatment for Recycling and Reuse in Irrigation.- 3.7.2 Interseasonal Wastewater Stabilisation/Storage Reservoirs.- 3.7.3 Advantages of Centrally Managed, Engineered Environmental Interventions.- References.- 4 Empirical Data for Monitoring and Control.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Materials and Methods.- 4.3 Results.- 4.4 Discussion.- 4.5 Conclusions.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 5 Process Design and Operation.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.1.1 Water Demand for Irrigation in Israel and the Hydrological Cycle in the Reservoirs.- 5.1.2 Basic Concepts in Designing Wastewater Reservoirs.- 5.2 Basic Operational Regimes and Water Demand Curves for Irrigation.- 5.3 The ‘Old’ Continuous-Flow Single Reservoirs.- 5.3.1 Volume and Depth.- 5.3.2 Outlet and Inlet Location.- 5.3.3 The Hydraulics of Continuous-Flow Wastewater Reservoirs as Reactors.- 5.3.4 MRT and PFE in Continuous-Flow Wastewater Reservoirs.- 5.3.5 Calculating Surface Organic Loading.- 5.3.6 Performance and Limitations of the Continuous-Flow Reservoirs.- 5.3.7 The Removal of Coliforms.- 5.4 The New Sequential Batch Reservoirs.- 5.4.1 Example I. Batch Operation During Winter.- 5.4.2 Example II. Batch Operation During Spring.- 5.4.3 Several Reservoirs Working in Sequential Batch.- 5.5 Maximum Organic Loading.- 5.5.1 Mean Surface Organic Loading.- 5.5.2 Increasing the Surface Organic Loading.- 5.5.3 Shocks of High Organic Loading.- 5.6 The Tools for Design.- 5.7 Control and Monitoring.- 5.7.1 Sampling.- 5.7.2 Data Analysis.- References.- 6 Hydraulic Age Distribution.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Concepts: The Hydraulic Age Distribution.- 6.2.1 PFE: Percentage of Fresh Effluents.- 6.3 The Leslie Matrix Model.- 6.3.1 Background.- 6.3.2 The Leslie Matrix Model Applied to Age Class Structure.- of Effluents in a Reactor.- 6.3.3 Age Distribution in Different Types of Reactors.- 6.3.4 Computer Algorithms.- 6.4 A Case Study: The Geta’ot Reservoir in 1989.- 6.5 Conclusions.- 6.6 Notation.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 7 Modelling.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.1.1 Milestones in the Development of Models of Aquatic Ecosystems.- 7.2 Models of Stabilisation Reservoirs.- 7.2.1 Models for Predicting Maximal Permitted Dissolved BOD in Stabilisation Reservoirs.- 7.2.2 Model for the Prediction of the Accumulation of Organic Matter in the Sediment of Stabilisation Reservoirs.- 7.2.3 Statistical models for Predicting BOD and COD Removal as a Function of the Operational Regime.- 7.2.4 Model of Hydraulic Age Distribution in Stabilisation Reservoirs.- 7.3 Simulation Model of Stabilisation Reservoirs.- 7.3.1 Introduction.- 7.3.2 Assumptions.- 7.3.3 Forcing Functions.- 7.3.4 State Variables.- 7.3.5 The Logical Structure of the Model and the Computer Programme.- 7.3.6 Results.- 7.4 Summary and Conclusions.- 7.5 Notation.- References.- 8 Sediment-Water Interrelationship.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Accumulation of Nutrients in Bottom Soils.- 8.3 Release of Nutrients from the Bottom.- 8.4 Nutrient Balance of Reservoirs.- 8.5 Modelling of Soil Bottom Processes.- References.- 9 Specific Construction Details.- 9.1 Earthen Reservoirs.- 9.2 The Spillway.- 9.3 The Floating Outlet Pipe.- 9.3.1 Elements of the Outlet Pipe.- 9.3.2 Details of the Design.- 9.3.3 Details of the Joints.- 9.4 The Road at the Top of the Embankment.- 10 Nitrogen and Nitrification.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Ammonia in Wastewater Reservoirs.- 10.2.1 General Aspects.- 10.2.2 Inhibition by Ammonia of Algal Photosynthesis and Growth.- 10.3 Nitrifying Bacteria in Reservoirs.- 10.3.1 Abundance of Nitrifying Bacteria.- 10.3.2 Detection of Nitrifying Bacteria in Wastewater Reservoirs.- 10.3.3 Nitrifying Bacteria in Anaerobic Environments.- 10.4 Unbalanced Nitrification of Ammonia.- 10.4.1 Nitrification of Ammonia in Wastewater Reservoirs.- 10.5 Summary.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 11 Phytoplankton.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Wastewater Reservoir as an Algal Habitat.- 11.3 Composition and Seasonality of Phytoplankton.- 11.4 Algae-Bacteria Relationships.- References.- 12 Fauna.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 Limnological Parameters.- 12.3 Faunal Limits and Definitions.- 12.4 Faunal Composition and Frequency.- 12.5 Aquatic Birds.- 12.6 Spatial and Temporal Distribution.- 12.7 Food Chains.- 12.8 The Effect of Grazing.- 12.9 The Reservoirs as an Environmental Opportunity.- 12.10 Unwanted Effects of the Fauna of the Hypertrophic Reservoirs.- 12.11 Fish Introduction for Manipulative Purposes.- 12.12 Faunistic Succession and Typology of the Hypertrophic Reservoirs.- 12.13 Conclusions.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 13 Odorous Compound.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Materials and Methods.- 13.2.1 Sampling at the Na’an Reservoir.- 13.2.2 Materials.- 13.2.3 Analytical Methods.- 13.3 Results and Discussion.- 13.4 Conclusions.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 14 Degradation of Organosynthetic Pollutants.- 14.1 Introduction.- 14.2 Results and Discussion.- 14.2.1 Organic Pollutants Identified.- 14.2.2 Reservoirs in the Judean Hills.- 14.2.3 Na’an Reservoir.- 14.2.4 Givat Brenner Wastewater Treatment Facility.- 14.2.5 Distribution of Organosynthetic Chemicals in Agricultural Soils Irrigated with Effluents from the Reservoirs.- 14.2.6 Degradation Mechanisms.- 14.3 Conclusions.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 15 Trace Metals.- 15.1 Introduction.- 15.2 Materials and Methods.- 15.2.1 The Studied Reservoirs and Water Balance.- 15.2.2 Sampling.- 15.2.3 Analytical Methods.- 15.2.4 Potential Sources of Errors.- 15.3 Results and Discussion.- 15.3.1 Operation of the Reservoirs and Water Balance.- 15.3.2 Concentration of Metals in Inflow and Outflow.- 15.3.3 Input/Output Amounts.- 15.3.4 Losses by Seepage.- 15.3.5 Removal and Metal Budget.- 15.3.6 Sedimentation Rates.- 15.3.7 Sedimentation Quantities.- 15.3.8 Parameters Affecting the Removal of Metals in the Reservoirs.- 15.4 Conclusions and Recommendations.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 16 The Clogging Capacity of Effluents.- 16.1 Introduction.- 16.2 Drip Irrigation.- 16.3 Measurements of the Clogging Capacity of Effluents on Screen Filters.- 16.3.1 Filterability Index and Filter Specific Resistance.- 16.3.2 “ATMMIN” and “ATMLIV”.- 16.3.3 Clogging Time.- 16.4 Causes for Screen Filter Clogging.- 16.4.1 Causes Related to Filter Operation.- 16.4.2 Causes Related to the Effluent.- 16.5 Reservoir Management Alternatives.- 16.5.1 The Biological Approach.- 16.5.2 The Chemical Approach.- 16.5.3 The Operational Approach.- 16.6 Concluding Comments.- References.- 17 Particle Characterization and Filtration.- 17.1 Introduction.- 17.2 Particle Characterization.- 17.3 Mechanical Filtration.- 17.4 Granular Media Filtration.- 17.5 General Conclusions.- References.- 18 Satellite Remote Sensing of Water Quality.- 18.1 Introduction.- 18.2 SPOT Images of Wastewater Reservoirs.- 18.2.1 Deep Wastewater Reservoirs.- 18.2.2 Ground Truth.- 18.2.3 Reservoir Classification.- 18.2.4 Radiance Values.- 18.2.5 Chromatic Coordinates.- 18.2.6 Atmospheric Effects.- 18.3 The Spectral Radiance Model.- 18.3.1 The Optical Properties of Hypertrophic Wastewater Reservoirs.- 18.3.2 Model Structure and Inputs.- 18.3.3 The Optical Properties of the Water Constituents.- 18.3.4 Model Results.- 18.4 Principal Components Analysis.- 18.4.1 Principal Components.- 18.4.2 Spectral Interpretation of the PCA.- 18.4.3 Interpretation of Model Results by Principal Components.- 18.5 Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 19 Experiences Outside Israel.- 19.1 Independent Experience.- 19.1.1 Canada and the United States.- 19.1.2 Spain.- 19.1.3 China.- 19.1.4 Germany.- 19.1.5 Italy.- 19.2 Wastewater Reservoirs Designed Abroad by Israeli Consultants.- 19.2.1 Chile - The Santiago Poniente Experimental Treatment Plant.- 19.2.2 Morocco - The Ben Slimane System.- 19.2.3 India - Wastewater Reservoirs in Gujarat State.- References.- II Case Studies.- 20 The Na’an Reservoir.- 20.1 Introduction.- 20.2 Materials and Methods.- 20.2.1 Structure and Operation of the Reservoir.- 20.2.2 Field Sampling and Measurements.- 20.2.3 Laboratory Analyses.- 20.3 Results.- 20.4 Discussion.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 21 The Geta’ot Reservoir.- 21.1 The Physical Environment.- 21.1.1 Introduction.- 21.1.2 Methods.- 21.1.3 Results and Discussion.- 21.1.4 Conclusions.- 21.2 Changes in Water Quality.- 21.2.1 Introduction.- 21.2.2 Methods.- 21.2.3 Results and Discussion.- 21.3 Conclusions.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 22 The Ma’aleh HaKishon Reservoir.- 22.1 Introduction.- 22.2 Description of the Reservoir.- 22.3 Operation of the Reservoir.- 22.4 The Biological Cycle in the Reservoir.- 22.5 Removal of Organic Material.- 22.6 Removal of Heavy Metals and Detergents.- 22.7 Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium.- 22.8 Suspended Solids.- 22.9 Enteric Microorganisms.- 22.10 Discussion.- References.- 23 The Negev Desert Reservoirs.- 23.1 Introduction.- 23.2 The Treatment Plant.- 23.3 The Soil-Aquifer Treatment (SAT).- 23.4 Reservoirs of Reclaimed Water.- 23.5 Growth of Algae in the Reservoirs.- 23.6 Control of Algae by Grazing Fish.- 23.7 Control of Algae by Lowering Water Level and Temporary Desiccation of the Reservoir Walls.- References.- 24 The Enan Reservoir.- 24.1 Introduction.- 24.2 Methods.- 24.2.1 Study Site.- 24.2.2 Sampling Methods.- 24.3 Results.- 24.3.1 Water Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen.- 24.3.2 Phytoplankton and Primary Productivity.- 24.3.3 Effect of Impoundment on Water Quality.- 24.3.4 Fish Farming.- 24.4 Discussion.- Acknowledgements.- References.