Handbook of Microwave Component Measurements: With Advanced Vna Techniques

ISBN-13: 9781119477136 / Angielski / Twarda / 2020 / 840 str.

Joel P. (Agilent Technologies) Dunsmore

Spis treści

Foreword to the Second Edition xviiForeword to the First Edition xixPreface to the Second Edition xxiPreface to the First Edition xxiiiAcknowledgments for the Second Edition xxvAcknowledgments from the First Edition xxvii1 Introduction to Microwave Measurements 11.1 Modern Measurement Process 21.2 A Practical Measurement Focus 31.3 Definition of Microwave Parameters 31.3.1 S-Parameter Primer 41.3.2 Phase Response of Networks 111.4 Power Parameters 131.4.1 Incident and Reflected Power 131.4.2 Available Power 131.4.3 Delivered Power 141.4.4 Power Available from a Network 141.4.5 Available Gain 151.5 Noise Figure and Noise Parameters 151.5.1 Noise Temperature 161.5.2 Effective or Excess Input Noise Temperature 171.5.3 Excess Noise Power and Operating Temperature 171.5.4 Noise Power Density 171.5.5 Noise Parameters 181.6 Distortion Parameters 191.6.1 Harmonics 191.6.2 Second-Order Intercept 191.6.3 Two-Tone Intermodulation Distortion 201.6.4 Adjacent Channel Power and Adjacent Channel Level Ratio 231.6.5 Noise Power Ratio (NPR) 241.6.6 Error Vector Magnitude (EVM) 251.7 Characteristics of Microwave Components 261.8 Passive Microwave Components 271.8.1 Cables, Connectors, and Transmission Lines 271.8.2 Connectors 311.8.3 Non-coaxial Transmission Lines 441.9 Filters 471.10 Directional Couplers 491.11 Circulators and Isolators 511.12 Antennas 521.13 PC Board Components 531.13.1 SMT Resistors 531.13.2 SMT Capacitors 561.13.3 SMT Inductors 571.13.4 PC Board Vias 571.14 Active Microwave Components 581.14.1 Linear and Non-linear 581.14.2 Amplifiers: System, Low-Noise, High Power 581.14.3 Mixers and Frequency Converters 591.14.4 Frequency Multiplier and Limiters and Dividers 611.14.5 Oscillators 621.15 Measurement Instrumentation 631.15.1 Power Meters 631.15.2 Signal Sources 641.15.3 Spectrum Analyzers 651.15.4 Vector Signal Analyzers 661.15.5 Noise Figure Analyzers 671.15.6 Network Analyzers 67References 702 VNA Measurement Systems 712.1 Introduction 712.2 VNA Block Diagrams 722.2.1 VNA Source 732.2.2 Understanding Source-Match 762.2.3 VNA Test Set 822.2.4 Directional Devices 852.2.5 VNA Receivers 912.2.6 IF and Data Processing 952.2.7 Multiport VNAs 972.2.8 High-Power Test Systems 1042.2.9 VNA with mm-Wave Extenders 1052.3 VNA Measurement of Linear Microwave Parameters 1072.3.1 Measurement Limitations of the VNA 1072.3.2 Limitations Due to External Components 1112.4 Measurements Derived from S-Parameters 1122.4.1 The Smith Chart 1122.4.2 Transforming S-Parameters to Other Impedances 1172.4.3 Concatenating Circuits and T-Parameters 1182.5 Modeling Circuits Using Y and Z Conversion 1202.5.1 Reflection Conversion 1202.5.2 Transmission Conversion 1202.6 Other Linear Parameters 1212.6.1 Z-Parameters, or Open-Circuit Impedance Parameters 1222.6.2 Y-Parameters, or Short-Circuit Admittance Parameters 1232.6.3 ABCD Parameters 1242.6.4 H-Parameters or Hybrid Parameters 1252.6.5 Complex Conversions and Non-equal Reference Impedances 126References 1263 Calibration and Vector Error Correction 1273.1 Introduction 1273.1.1 Error Correction and Linear Measurement Methods for S-Parameters 1283.1.2 Power Measurements with a VNA 1313.2 Basic Error Correction for S-Parameters: Cal-Application 1343.2.1 12-Term Error Model 1343.2.2 1-Port Error Model 1363.2.3 8-Term Error Model 1363.3 Determining Error Terms: Cal-Acquisition for 12-Term Models 1393.3.1 1-Port Error Terms 1393.3.2 1-Port Standards 1413.3.3 2-Port Error Terms 1483.3.4 12-Term to 11-Term Error Model 1533.4 Determining Error Terms: Cal-Acquisition for 8-Term Models 1533.4.1 TRL Standards and Raw Measurements 1533.4.2 Special Cases for TRL Calibration 1573.4.3 Unknown Thru or SOLR (Reciprocal Thru Calibration) 1583.4.4 Applications of Unknown Thru Calibrations 1593.4.5 QSOLT Calibration 1613.4.6 Electronic Calibration (ECal(TM)) or Automatic Calibration 1623.5 Waveguide Calibrations 1663.6 Calibration for Source Power 1673.6.1 Calibrating Source Power for Source Frequency Response 1683.6.2 Calibration for Power Sensor Mismatch 1693.6.3 Calibration for Source Power Linearity 1713.7 Calibration for Receiver Power 1733.7.1 Some Historical Perspective 1733.7.2 Modern Receiver Power Calibration 1733.7.3 Response Correction for the Transmission Test Receiver 1783.7.4 Power Waves vs. Actual Waves 1813.8 Calibrating Multiple Channels Simultaneously: Cal All 1823.9 Multiport Calibration Strategies 1863.9.1 N × 2-Port Calibrations: Switching Test Sets 1863.9.2 N-port Calibration: True Multiport 1883.10 Automatic In-Situ Calibrations: CalPod 1913.10.1 CalPod Initialization and Recorrection 1923.10.2 CalPod-as-Ecal 1943.11 Devolved Calibrations 1943.11.1 Response Calibrations 1953.11.2 Enhanced Response Calibration 1963.12 Determining Residual Errors 1993.12.1 Reflection Errors 1993.12.2 Using Airlines to Determine Residual Errors 1993.13 Computing Measurement Uncertainties 2103.13.1 Uncertainty in Reflection Measurements 2103.13.2 Uncertainty in Source Power 2113.13.3 Uncertainty in Measuring Power (Receiver Uncertainty) 2123.14 S21 or Transmission Uncertainty 2123.14.1 General Uncertainty Equation for S21 2143.14.2 Dynamic Uncertainty Computation 2153.15 Errors in Phase 2183.16 Practical Calibration Limitations 2193.16.1 Cable Flexure 2203.16.2 Changing Power after Calibration 2213.16.3 Compensating for Changes in Step Attenuators 2233.16.4 Connector Repeatability 2253.16.5 Noise Effects 2263.16.6 Drift: Short-Term and Long-Term 2273.16.7 Interpolation of Error Terms 2293.16.8 Calibration Quality: Electronic vs. Mechanical Kits 231Reference 2324 Time-Domain Transforms 2354.1 Introduction 2354.2 The Fourier Transform 2364.2.1 The Continuous Fourier Transform 2364.2.2 Even and Odd Functions and the Fourier Transform 2364.2.3 Modulation (Shift) Theorem 2374.3 The Discrete Fourier Transform 2384.3.1 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) 2384.3.2 Discrete Fourier Transforms 2404.4 Fourier Transform (Analytic) vs. VNA Time Domain Transform 2404.4.1 Defining the Fourier Transform 2414.4.2 Effects of Discrete Sampling 2424.4.3 Effects of Truncated Frequency 2444.4.4 Windowing to Reduce Effects of Truncation 2464.4.5 Scaling and Renormalization 2484.5 Low-Pass Transforms 2484.5.1 Low-Pass Impulse Mode 2484.5.2 DC Extrapolation 2494.5.3 Low-Pass Step Mode 2494.5.4 Band-Pass Mode 2514.6 Time-Domain Gating 2524.6.1 Gating Loss and Renormalization 2534.7 Examples of Time-Domain Transforms of Various Networks 2564.7.1 Time-Domain Response of Changes in Line Impedance 2564.7.2 Time-Domain Response of Discrete Discontinuities 2574.7.3 Time-Domain Responses of Various Circuits 2574.8 The Effects of Masking and Gating on Measurement Accuracy 2594.8.1 Compensation for Changes in Line Impedance 2594.8.2 Compensation for Discrete Discontinuities 2604.8.3 Time-Domain Gating 2604.8.4 Estimating an Uncertainty Due to Masking 2654.9 Time-Domain Transmission Using VNA 2654.10 Conclusions 269References 2695 Measuring Linear Passive Devices 2715.1 Transmission Lines, Cables, and Connectors 2715.1.1 Calibration for Low Loss Devices with Connectors 2715.1.2 Measuring Electrically Long Devices 2735.1.3 Attenuation Measurements 2785.1.4 Return Loss Measurements 2955.1.5 Cable Length and Delay 3055.2 Filters and Filter Measurements 3065.2.1 Filter Classes and Difficulties 3065.2.2 Duplexer and Diplexers 3075.2.3 Measuring Tunable High-Performance Filters 3085.2.4 Measuring Transmission Response 3105.2.5 High Speed vs. Dynamic Range 3155.2.6 Extremely High Dynamic Range Measurements 3175.2.7 Calibration Considerations 3265.3 Multiport Devices 3275.3.1 Differential Cables and Lines 3285.3.2 Couplers 3285.3.3 Hybrids, Splitters, and Dividers 3315.3.4 Circulators and Isolators 3345.4 Resonators 3365.4.1 Resonator Responses on a Smith Chart 3365.5 Antenna Measurements 3385.6 Conclusions 340References 3416 Measuring Amplifiers 3436.1 Amplifiers as a Linear Devices 3436.1.1 Pretesting an Amplifier 3446.1.2 Optimizing VNA Settings for Calibration 3466.1.3 Calibration for Amplifier Measurements 3476.1.4 Amplifier Measurements 3516.1.5 Analysis of Amplifier Measurements 3576.1.6 Saving Amplifier Measurement Results 3676.2 Gain Compression Measurements 3726.2.1 Compression Definitions 3726.2.2 AM-to-PM or Phase Compression 3766.2.3 Swept Frequency Gain and Phase Compression 3776.2.4 Gain Compression Application, Smart Sweep, and Safe-Sweep Mode 3786.3 Measuring High-Gain Amplifiers 3846.3.1 Setup for High-Gain Amplifiers 3866.3.2 Calibration Considerations 3866.4 Measuring High-Power Amplifiers 3896.4.1 Configurations for Generating High Drive Power 3896.4.2 Configurations for Receiving High-Power 3916.4.3 Power Calibration and Pre/Post Leveling 3936.5 Making Pulsed-RF Measurements 3946.5.1 Wideband vs. Narrowband Measurements 3956.5.2 Pulse Profile Measurements 3986.5.3 Pulse-to-Pulse Measurements 4016.5.4 DC Measurements for Pulsed RF Stimulus 4016.6 Distortion Measurements 4036.6.1 Harmonic Measurements on Amplifiers 4046.7 Measuring Doherty Amplifiers 4106.8 X-Parameters, Load-Pull Measurements, Active Loads, and Hot S-Parameters 4136.8.1 Non-linear Responses and X-Parameters 4146.8.2 Load-Pull, Source-Pull, and Load Contours 4176.8.3 Hot S-Parameters and True Hot-S22 4216.9 Conclusions on Amplifier Measurements 433References 4347 Mixer and Frequency Converter Measurements 4357.1 Mixer Characteristics 4357.1.1 Small Signal Model of Mixers 4387.1.2 Reciprocity in Mixers 4427.1.3 Scalar and Vector Responses 4447.2 Mixers vs. Frequency Converters 4457.2.1 Frequency Converter Design 4467.2.2 Multiple Conversions and Spur Avoidance 4467.3 Mixers as a 12-Port Device 4487.3.1 Mixer Conversion Terms 4487.4 Mixer Measurements: Frequency Response 4517.4.1 Introduction 4517.4.2 Amplitude Response 4527.4.3 Phase Response 4567.4.4 Group Delay and Modulation Methods 4667.4.5 Swept LO Measurements 4697.5 Calibration for Mixer Measurements 4767.5.1 Calibrating for Power 4767.5.2 Calibrating for Phase 4797.5.3 Determining the Phase and Delay of a Reciprocal Calibration Mixer 4827.6 Mixers Measurements vs. Drive Power 4937.6.1 Mixer Measurements vs. LO Drive 4937.6.2 Mixer Measurements vs. RF Drive Level 4977.7 TOI and Mixers 5017.7.1 IMD vs. LO Drive Power 5027.7.2 IMD vs. RF Power 5027.7.3 IMD vs. Frequency Response 5057.8 Noise Figure in Mixers and Converters 5077.9 Special Cases 5077.9.1 Mixers with RF or LO Multipliers 5077.9.2 Segmented Sweeps 5097.9.3 Measuring Higher-Order Products 5097.9.4 Mixers with an Embedded LO 5157.9.5 High-Gain and High-Power Converters 5177.10 I/Q Converters and Modulators 5187.11 Conclusions on Mixer Measurements 530References 5318 Spectrum Analysis: Distortion and Modulation Measurements 5338.1 Spectrum Analysis in Vector Network Analyzers 5348.1.1 Spectrum Analysis Fundamentals 5348.1.2 SA Block Diagrams: Image Rejection: Hardware vs. Software 5398.1.3 Attributes of Repetitive Signals and Spectrum Measurements 5468.1.4 Coherent Spectrum Analysis 5598.1.5 Calibration of SA Results 5688.1.6 Two-Tone Measurements, IMD, and TOI Definition 5718.1.7 Measurement Techniques for Two-Tone TOI 5748.1.8 Swept IMD 5768.1.9 Optimizing Results 5798.1.10 Error Correction 5828.2 Distortion Measurement of Complex Modulated Signals 5838.2.1 Adjacent Power Measurements 5848.2.2 Noise Power Ratio (NPR) Measurements 5878.2.3 NPR Signal Quality and Correction 5928.2.4 EVM Derived from Distortion Measurements 5968.3 Measurements of Spurious Signals with VNA Spectrum Analyzer 6058.3.1 Spurious at Predictable Frequencies 6058.3.2 Multiport Mixer Spurious Measurements 6078.3.3 Spurious Oscillations 6088.4 Measurements of Pulsed Signals and Time-Gated Spectrum Analysis 6118.4.1 Understanding Pulsed Spectrum 6118.4.2 Time-Gated Spectrum Analysis 6128.5 Summary 615Reference 6159 Measuring Noise Figure and Noise Power 6179.1 Noise-Figure Measurements for Amplifiers 6179.1.1 Definition of Noise Figure 6189.1.2 Noise-Power Measurements 6199.1.3 Computing Noise Figure from Noise Powers 6239.1.4 Computing DUT Noise Figure from Y-Factor Measurements 6249.1.5 Cold-Source Methods 6269.1.6 Noise Parameters 6289.1.7 Noise Parameter Measurement Results 6349.1.8 Error Correction in Noise Figure Measurements 6379.2 Active Antenna Noise-Figure Measurements (G/T) 6389.3 Noise Figure in Mixers and Converters 6429.3.1 Y-Factor Measurements on Mixers 6429.3.2 Cold-Source Measurements on Mixers 6449.4 Other Noise-Related Measurements 6509.4.1 Noise Power Measurements with a VNA Spectrum Analyzer 6509.4.2 Noise-Power Measurements 6509.4.3 Noise Figure Measurements Using Spectrum Analysis 6539.4.4 Carrier-to-Noise Measurements 6549.5 Uncertainty, Verification, and Improvement of Noise-Figure Measurements 6559.5.1 Uncertainty of Noise-Figure Measurements 6559.5.2 Existing Methodologies 6569.5.3 Techniques for Improving Noise-Figure Measurements 6659.6 Summary: Noise and Noise-Figure Measurements 668References 66810 VNA Balanced Measurements 66910.1 Differential and Balanced S-Parameters 66910.2 3-Port Balanced Devices 67410.3 Measurement Examples for Mixed-Mode Devices 67510.3.1 Passive Differential Devices: Balanced Transmission Lines 67510.3.2 Differential Amplifier Measurements 68010.3.3 Differential Amplifiers and Non-linear Operation 68210.4 True-Mode VNA for Non-linear Testing 68910.4.1 True-Mode Instruments 68910.4.2 True-Mode Measurements 69210.4.3 Determining the Phase Skew of a Differential Device 69810.4.4 Differential Harmonic Measurements 70010.5 Differential Testing Using Baluns, Hybrids, and Transformers 70810.5.1 Transformers vs. Hybrids 70810.5.2 Using Hybrids and Baluns with a 2-Port VNA 71110.6 Distortion Measurements of Differential Devices 71410.6.1 Comparing Single-Ended IMD Measurement to True-Mode Measurements 71510.6.2 Differential IMD without Baluns 71810.7 Noise Figure Measurements on Differential Devices 72310.7.2 Measurement Setup 72510.8 Conclusions on Differential Device Measurement 731References 73211 Advanced Measurement Techniques 73311.1 Creating Your Own Cal-Kits 73311.1.1 PC Board Example 73411.1.2 Evaluating PC Board Fixtures 73511.2 Fixturing and De-embedding 75011.2.1 De-embedding Mathematics 75111.3 Determining S-Parameters for Fixtures 75311.3.1 Fixture Characterization Using 1-Port Calibrations 75311.4 Automatic Port Extensions (APE) 75911.5 AFR: Fixture Removal Using Time Domain 76411.5.1 2-Port AFR 76411.5.2 Fixture-Enhanced AFR 76811.5.3 1-Port AFR 77011.6 Embedding Port-Matching Elements 77211.7 Impedance Transformations 77411.8 De-embedding High-Loss Devices 77511.9 Understanding System Stability 77811.9.1 Determining Cable Transmission Stability 77811.9.2 Determining Cable Mismatch Stability 77811.9.3 Reflection Tracking Stability 78111.10 Some Final Comments on Advanced Techniques and Measurements 782References 783Appendix A Physical Constants 785Appendix B Common RF and Microwave Connectors 787Appendix C Common Waveguides 789Appendix D Some Definitions for Calibration Kit Opens and Shorts 791Appendix E Frequency, Wavelength, and Period 795Index 797

O autorze

Dr. Joel P. Dunsmore, Research Fellow at Keysight Technologies, California, USASince graduating from Oregon State University with a BSEE (1982) and an MSEE (1983), Joel Dunsmore has worked for Keysight Technologies (formerly Agilent Technologies, and Hewlett-Packard) at the Sonoma County Site. He received his Ph.D. from Leeds University in 2004. He was a principle contributor to the HP 8753 and PNA family of network analyzers, responsible for RF and Microwave circuit designs in these products. Recently, he has worked in the area of non-linear test including differential devices, and mixer measurements. He has received 31 patents related to this work, has published numerous articles on measurement technology, as well as consulting on measurement applications. He has taught electrical circuit fundamentals at the local university and co-taught an RF course at the University of California, Berkeley, and presented several short courses and seminars through ARFTG, MTT, EMC, and Keysight.