Fluid Mechanics for Marine Ecologists

ISBN-13: 9783642643057 / Angielski / Miękka / 2014 / 566 str.

Stanislaw R. Massel

Opis

The future quality of life on Earth fundamentally depends on trends in world climate. The oceans playa dominant role in regulating global climate by help ing to control greenhouse gases, global heat transfer and weather patterns. If we also consider the energy and other resources oceans offer, their essential importance to human existence become obvious. Ocean waters are in endless motions. Scales of these motions vary from micro-turbulence through to surface and internal waves, tides, and global currents of planetary dimensions. How ever, in each case the water motion satisfies the fundamental fluid mechanics and geophysical fluid mechanics principles. Oceans are not empty, but support a large variety of organisms and plants. Many of the basic attributes of life of these creatures raise such questions as: why are the ocean's living resources distributed as they are?; how can cyclical changes overthrow the system?; why do organisms have a particular size and shape?; how do they move and reproduce?; how do they capture food and many others. In the majority of situations, biological processes appear to be strongly influ enced by the physics, while the physical processes are largely independent of the biology. However, when we consider a time scale of thousands years, the feedback from biology to physics is not so simple. The present composition of the Earth's atmosphere and the present average temperature at the surface of the Earth have been strongly influenced by living organisms."

Spis treści

I: Basic Fluid Mechanics.- 1 Introducing Sea Water.- 1.1 Water on Earth.- 1.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Sea Water.- 1.2.1 Sea Water Density and Related Measures.- 1.2.2 Sea Water Viscosity.- 1.2.3 Surface Tension.- 1.2.4 Inorganic Salts.- 1.2.5 Dissolved Gases.- 1.2.6 Concentration of Suspended Particles and Yellow Substances.- 2 Water at Rest and in Motion.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.1.1 Coordinates System.- 2.2 Water at Rest: Hydrostatics.- 2.2.1 Pressure Distribution in Water.- 2.2.2 Buoyancy.- 2.2.3 Stability and Metacentric Height.- 2.3 Water in Motion: Hydrodynamics.- 2.3.1 Methods of the Study.- 2.3.2 Steady and Unsteady Flow.- 2.3.3 Rotational and Irrotational Flows.- 2.3.4 Mass-Conservation Equation.- 2.3.5 The Momentum Principle and Bernoulli Equation.- 2.4 Laminar and Turbulent Flow.- 2.4.1 A Brief Overview.- 2.4.2 Reynolds Number.- 2.4.3 Mean and Fluctuating Components of Turbulent Flow.- 2.5 Boundary Layer Flows.- 2.5.1 Motivation.- 2.5.2 Non-Slip Condition and Boundary Layer Thickness.- 2.5.3 Laminar Boundary Layer.- 2.5.4 Turbulent Boundary Layer.- 2.6 Forces Imposed by Fluid Flow.- 2.6.1 Introduction.- 2.6.2 Drag Force.- 2.6.3 Lift Force.- 2.6.4 Inertia Force.- 2.6.5 Bodies Falling in Fluid.- 2.7 Laminar and Turbulent Flows in Ducts.- 2.7.1 Introduction.- 2.7.2 Laminar Flow in Ducts.- 2.7.3 Turbulent Flow in Ducts.- II: Oceanic Hydrodynamic Processes.- 3 An Introduction to Surface Waves.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Nature of Wave Motion.- 3.3 Types of Waves.- 3.4 Basic Wave Characteristics.- 3.4.1 Definition of Surface Wave Dimensions.- 3.4.2 Orbital Motion of Water Particles.- 3.4.3 Phase and Group Velocities.- 3.5 Wind-Generated Waves.- 3.5.1 How Does Wind Generate Waves?.- 3.5.2 Fetch and Duration Limited Wave Growth.- 3.5.3 Parameters and Functions of Wind-Induced Waves.- 3.5.4 Geography of Waves.- 3.6 Tsunamis.- 3.7 Seiches.- 3.8 Storm Surges.- 3.9 Rossby Waves.- 4 How to Determine Wave Parameters.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Wave Parameters Based on Small Amplitude Wave Theory.- 4.2.1 Introductory Remarks.- 4.2.2 Practical Calculation Formulas for Constant Water Depth.- 4.2.3 Higher Order Wave Theories.- 4.2.4 Wave Shoaling and Refraction.- 4.2.5 Wave Diffraction.- 4.2.6 Wave Breaking.- 4.2.7 Boundary Layer Induced by Waves.- 4.2.8 Forces Induced by Waves.- 4.3 Statistical and Spectral Properties of Waves.- 4.3.1 A Brief Orientation.- 4.3.2 Outline of Waves Statistics.- 4.3.3 Spectral Properties of Wind-Induced Waves.- 5 Tides.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Tide Generating Forces and Equilibrium Theory.- 5.2.1 The Earth-Moon System.- 5.2.2 The Earth-Sun System.- 5.3 Dynamic Model of Tides.- 5.3.1 Brief Overall.- 5.3.2 Coriolis Acceleration.- 5.3.3 Dynamic Behaviour of Tides.- 5.4 Harmonic Analysis and Prediction of Tides.- 5.4.1 Prediction of Tides.- 5.4.2 Tidal Tables.- 6 Internal Waves.- 6.1 Introduction and Useful Definitions.- 6.2 Stability of Water Masses.- 6.3 Internal Waves in Two-Layer Ocean.- 6.4 Internal Waves when the Density Varies Continuously with Depth.- 6.4.1 Modal Structure of Internal Waves.- 6.4.2 Topographic Effects.- 6.4.3 Surface Effects.- 6.4.4 Microstructure.- 7 Ocean Currents.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Wind Patterns on Earth.- 7.2.1 Forces Driving the Wind.- 7.2.2 Geostrophic Wind.- 7.2.3 Major Surface Wind Patterns.- 7.2.4 Storms and Cyclones.- 7.3 Wind-Driven Surface and Near-Surface Currents.- 7.3.1 Forces Driving Ocean Currents.- 7.3.2 Geostrophic Flow.- 7.3.3 General Pattern of Wind-Driven Ocean Circulation.- 7.3.4 Types of Surface Current Flows.- 7.3.5 Currents in Non-Homogeneous Ocean.- 7.4 Thermohaline Circulation.- 7.5 Modelling of Oceanic General Circulation.- 7.6 El Niño and Southern Oscillation.- 7.6.1 Introduction.- 7.6.2 Physical Mechanisms Linking El Niño and Southern Oscillation Phenomena.- 7.6.3 El Niño of 1982–1983.- 7.6.4 Observing and Forecasting El Niño.- 7.7 Continental Shelf Flow.- 7.7.1 Overview of Continental Shelf Waters.- 7.7.2 Western Boundary Currents.- 7.7.3 Eastern Boundary Currents and Coastal Upwelling.- 7.7.4 Other Examples of Upwelling.- 7.8 Coastal Water Movement.- 7.8.1 An Overview of Coastal Flows.- 7.8.2 Circulation in the Surf Zone.- 8 Transport in the Oceans and Coastal Zone.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Basics of Diffusion.- 8.2.1 Randomness of Diffusion.- 8.2.2 Random Walks.- 8.2.3 Fick’s Equation of Diffusion.- 8.3 Concentration of Matter for Molecular and Turbulent Diffusion.- 8.3.1 Concentration of Matter for Molecular Diffusion.- 8.3.2 Concentration of Matter for Turbulent Diffusion.- 8.3.3 Shear Flow Dispersion.- 8.3.4 Some Workable Solutions of the Diffusion Equations.- 8.4 Diffusion and Mixing in the Ocean.- 8.4.1 Introduction.- 8.4.2 Diffusion of Tracers in the Ocean.- 8.4.3 Diffusion in a Continuously Stratified Ocean.- 8.4.4 Double Diffusion and Salt Fingers.- 8.5 Diffusion and Mixing in Estuaries.- 8.5.1 Introduction and Classification.- 8.5.2 Some Simple Mixing Concepts.- 8.5.3 Salt-Wedge Estuary.- 8.5.4 Dynamics of Partly Mixed Estuaries.- 8.5.5 Dynamics of a Well-Mixed Estuary.- 8.6 Sediment Transport in the Coastal Zone.- 8.6.1 Longshore Sediment Transport.- 8.6.2 Sediment Budget and Depth Changes.- 9 Experimental Methods in Fluid Mechanics.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Field and Laboratory Measurement Techniques.- 9.2.1 Temperature.- 9.2.2 Salinity.- 9.2.3 Sea Level Measurement.- 9.2.4 Ocean Current Measurements.- 9.2.5 Wave Measurements.- 9.3 Remote Sensing Techniques.- 9.3.1 Introduction.- 9.3.2 Surface Waves Observed by Satellites.- 9.3.3 Tides Observed by Satellites.- 9.3.4 Ocean Circulation Observed by Satellites.- 9.3.5 Sea Surface Temperature Measured by Satellites.- 9.4 Similitude and Dimensional Analysis.- 9.4.1 Introduction.- 9.4.2 Dimensional Analysis.- 9.4.3 Similitude Principles.- 9.5 Spectral and Statistical Analysis of Time Series.- 9.5.1 Data Sampling.- 9.5.2 Standardization of Data, Trend Removal and Filtering.- 9.5.3 Calculation of Frequency Spectra.- 9.5.4 Calculation of Statistical Characteristics of Waves.- III: Marine Environment and Ecology.- 10 Mechanical Properties of Biological Materials.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Definition of Mechanical Properties of Biological Materials.- 10.2.1 Stress and Strain.- 10.2.2 Shear-Stress and Strain.- 10.2.3 Viscoelasticity.- 10.2.4 Bending.- 10.2.5 Stiffness and Strength.- 10.2.6 Overview of Mechanical Properties of Biological Materials.- 10.3 The Density of Marine Organisms.- 11 Locomotion of Marine Animals.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Buoyancy in Marine Animals.- 11.3 Mechanics of Animal Swimming.- 11.3.1 Introduction.- 11.3.2 Classification of Fish Swimming Modes.- 11.3.3 Kinematics, Speed and Size.- 11.3.4 Transmission of Forces Between Fish and Water.- 11.3.5 Jet Propulsion Mechanism.- 11.3.6 Swimming in Low Reynolds Number Environment.- 11.4 Swimming Strategy.- 12 Internal Flows in Marine Organisms.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 Flow in Pipes Revisited.- 12.3 Blood as Fluid and its Circulation in Marine Organisms.- 12.4 Propagation of the Pressure Pulse.- 12.5 Oxygen Supply in Marine Animals.- 13 Transport and Mixing in Coastal Ecosystems.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Transport and Mixing in Estuaries.- 13.2.1 A Brief Orientation.- 13.2.2 Sediment Transport in Estuaries.- 13.2.3 Dispersion in Non-Vegetated and Vegetated Estuaries.- 13.2.4 Influence of Mixing on Primary Production.- 13.3 Dispersion of River Plumes.- 13.4 Larval Settlement and External Fertilization.- 13.4.1 Settlement of Larvae.- 13.4.2 External Fertilization.- 13.4.3 Dispersion of Coral Eggs Following Mass Coral Spawning.- 14 Tides and Waves on Vegetated Coasts.- 14.1 Introduction.- 14.2 Tides and Waves in Mangrove Forests.- 14.2.1 Tide-Induced Water Motion in Mangrove Forests.- 14.2.2 Storm or Cyclone-Induced Waves in Mangrove Forests.- 14.2.3 Sedimentation in Mangrove Forests.- 14.3 Tidal Flats.- 14.3.1 Tidal and Wave Motion on Tidal Flats.- 14.3.2 Salinity and Sediment Transport on Tidal Flats.- 14.4 Waves at Coral Reefs.- 14.4.1 A Brief Overview.- 14.4.2 Wave Transformation and Breaking on Coral Reefs.- 14.4.3 Water Circulation on Coral Reefs.- 14.4.4 Impact of Waves on Physical Degradation of Reefs.- 14.5 Seaweeds and Seagrasses.- 14.5.1 Seaweeds.- 14.5.2 Seagrasses.- 14.6 Coastal Fluid Muds.- 15 Vertical Structure of Ocean Waters and Biological Productivity.- 15.1 Introduction.- 15.2 Upwelling and Biological Production.- 15.2.1 General Overview.- 15.2.2 Physical Factors and Primary Production in Coastal Up-welling Ecosystems.- 15.3 Oceanic Fronts and Biological Productivity.- 15.4 Plankton Patchiness in Upper Ocean.- 15.5 Phytoplankton Concentration in Stratified Ocean.- 15.6 Tidal Mixing and Phytoplankton Production.- A Symbols and Notations.- B International System of Units.- B.1 Introduction.- B.2 Base Units.- B.2.1 Length.- B.2.2 Time.- B.2.3 Mass.- B.2.4 Temperature.- B.3 Derived Units.- B.3.1 Frequency.- B.3.2 Velocity.- B.3.3 Acceleration.- B.3.4 Discharge.- B.3.5 Force.- B.3.6 Pressure.- B.3.7 Shear Stress and Shear Force.- B.3.8 Energy and Power.- B.4 Conversion Factors Between BG and SI Units.- C Useful Theoretical Approaches and Formulas.- C.1 Vector Notations Used in the Book.- C.2 Derivation of Mass Conservation Equation.- C.3 Derivation of the Equations of Fluid Motion.- C.3.1 Governing Equations.- C.3.2 Navier-Stokes Equation Solution for Sphere Moving in Viscous Fluid.- C.4 Summary of Basic Irrotational Flow Properties.- C.5 Formulas of Small Amplitude Wave Theory.- C.5.1 Unknown Quantities and Laplace Equation.- C.5.2 Boundary Conditions.- C.5.3 Wave Type Solution of the Laplace Equation.- C.5.4 Wave Parameters Based on Small Amplitude Wave Theory.- C.6 Circular, Hyperbolic and Complex Functions.- C.7 Evaluation of Integral (8.60).- D Computer Programs Set ApD.- D.1 Programs Installation.- D.2 Brief Program Descriptions.- D.2.1 Program D.11: Calculation of Sea Water Density According to UNESCO Formula.- D.2.2 Program D.31: Surface Displacement for Fixed Location or at Given Time Instant.- D.2.3 Program D.41: Calculation of Wavelength (or Wave Period) and Phase and Group Velocities.- D.2.4 Program D.42: Surface Wave Profiles Resulting from Various Wave Theories.- D.2.5 Program D.43: Vertical Profiles of Horizontal Orbital Velocity Under Wave Crest and Wave Trough.- D.2.6 Program D.44: Vertical Profiles of Wave-Induced Pressure Under Wave Crest and Trough.- D.2.7 Program D.45: Wave Shoaling and Refraction (Parallel Bottom Contours).- D.2.8 Program D.46: Harmonic Analysis of a Given Time Series f(t).- D.2.9 Program D.47: Spectral Analysis of Time Series (FFT Method).- D.2.10 Program D.81: Instantaneous Release of Substance in Uniform Flow (One-Dimensional Case).- D.2.11 Program D.82: Steady Release of Substance in Uniform Flow.- D.2.12 Program D.83: Simulation of Substance Diffusion by Monte Carlo Method.