Flame-Retardant Polymeric Materials: Volume 2

ISBN-13: 9781468469752 / Angielski / Miękka / 2012 / 334 str.

Menachem Lewin

Opis

Flammability has been recognized as an increasingly important social and scientific problem. Fire statistics in the United States (Report of the National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control, "America Burning," 1973) emphasized the vast devastation to life and property--12, OOO lives lost annually due to fire, and these deaths are usually caused by inhaling smoke or toxic gases; 300,000 fire injuries; 11.4 billion dollars in fire cost at which 2.7 billion dollars is related to property loss; a billion dollars to burn injury treatment; and 3.3 billion dollars in productivity loss. It is obvious that much human and economic misery can be attributed to fire situations. In relation to this, polymer flammability has been recognized as an in creasingly important social and scientific problem. The development of flame-retardant polymeric materials is a current example where the initia tive for major scientific and technological developments is motivated by sociological pressure and legislation. This is part of the important trend toward a safer environment and sets a pattern for future example. Flame retardancy deals with our basic everyday life situations-housing, work areas, transportation, clothing and so forth-the "macroenvironment" capsule within which "homosapiens" live. As a result, flame-retardant polymers are now emerging as a specific class of materials leading to new and diversified scientific and technological ventures."

Spis treści

1 Structure, Pyrolysis, and Flammability of Cellulose.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Fine Structure of Cellulose.- 3. The Major Products of Cellulose Pyrolysis: Levoglucosan and Char.- 3.1. Levoglucosan Formation.- 3.2. Other Products.- 3.3. Char Formation.- 4. Vacuum Pyrolysis.- 4.1. Mechanism, Rates, and Products.- 4.2. Kinetics.- 4.3. Structural Changes.- 4.4. Thermal Analysis.- 5. Air Pyrolysis.- 5.1. General.- 5.2. Kinetics and Fine Structure.- 5.3. Levoglucosan Formation, Fine Structure, and Combustibility.- 6. Flame Retardancy.- 6.1. Mechanism and Flame-Retardant Structural Considerations.- 6.2. Flame Retardancy and Fine Structure of Cellulose.- 7. References.- 2 Synergism and Flame Retardancy.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Synergism.- 3. Synergistic Reactions in Fire Retardation.- 3.1. Antimony-Halogen Synergism.- 3.2. Phosphorus-Halogen Synergism.- 3.3. Nitrogen-Phosphorus Synergism.- 3.4. Synergism with Free-Radical Initiators.- 3.5. Synergism and Condensed Phase Reactions.- 4. Synergism and Future Studies on Fire Retardation.- 5. References.- 3 Ignition of Polymers.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Autoignition Studies.- 2.1. Experimental Technique.- 2.2. General Kinetic Model of the Ignition Process.- 2.3. Autoignition Data for Single-Component Systems.- 2.4. Effects of Selected Experimental Variables.- 3. Autoignition of Multicomponent Systems.- 3.1. Polymers with Flame-Retardant Additives.- 3.2. Multipolymer Systems.- 4. The State of the Art.- 5. References.- 4 Phosphorus-Based Flame Retardants.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds.- 2.1. Red Phosphorus.- 2.2. Ammonium Phosphates.- 2.3. Insoluble Ammonium Polyphosphate.- 2.4. Ammonia-P2O5 Products.- 2.5. Phosphoric-Acid-Based Systems for Cellulosics.- 3. Organic Phosphorus Flame Retardants—Additive Types.- 3.1. Alkyl Acid Phosphates.- 3.2. Trialkyl Phosphates.- 3.3. Dimethyl Methylphosphonate.- 3.4. Halogenated Alkyl Phosphates and Phosphonates.- 3.5. Oligomeric Halogen-Free Phosphorus Esters.- 3.6. Oligomeric Cyclic Phosphonate.- 3.7. Oligomeric Phenylphosphonates.- 3.8. Tricresyl Phosphates and Related Phosphates.- 3.9. Triphenyl Phosphate.- 3.10. Phosphonitrilics.- 3.11. Phosphonium Bromides.- 3.12. Phosphine Oxides.- 4. Organic Phosphorus Compounds—Reactive Types.- 4.1. Organophosphorus Monomers.- 4.2. Phosphorus-Containing Diols and Polyols.- 4.3. Reactive Organophosphorus Compounds in Textile Finishing.- 5. Mode of Action of Phosphorus Flame Retardants.- 5.1. Condensed Phase Mechanisms.- 5.2. Vapor Phase Mechanisms.- 6. Trends and Future Developments.- 7. References.- 5 Flammability of Cotton-Polyester Blend Fabrics.- 1. Theory of Flame-Retardant Action.- 2. Flame-Retardant Treatments for Polyester-Cotton Blends.- 3. References.- 6 Factors Affecting the Combustion of Polystyrene and Styrene.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Physical and Thermal Properties of Polystyrene and Styrene.- 3. The Pyrolysis and Combustion of Polystyrene and Styrene.- 3.1. The Pyrolysis and Combustion of Polymers.- 3.2. The Pyrolysis of Polystyrene.- 3.3. Inhibiting the Pyrolysis of Polystyrene.- 3.4. The Pyrolysis and Combustion of Polystyrene.- 3.5. The Pyrolysis amd Combustion of Styrene Monomer.- 4. The Mechanisms of Flame Retardation.- 4.1. Theories of Flame Retardancy.- 4.2. The Mechanisms of Halogen Flame Retardants.- 5. The Effects of Halogen Flame Retardants on the Combustion of Polystyrene and Styrene.- 6. The Role of Synergists in the Combustion of Styrenic Materials Inhibited by Halogen Compounds.- 7. The Use of Phosphorus Compounds as Flame Retardants for Polystyrene.- 8. Test Methods and Their Usefulness to Combustion Studies.- 9. Conclusions.- 10. References.- 7 Phenolic Fibers.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Preparation of Phenolic Fibers.- 2.1. Selection of Precursor Resin and Spinning Characteristics.- 2.2. Curing Process.- 2.3. Acetylation of Phenolic Fibers.- 3. Properties of Phenolic Fibers.- 3.1. Flame Resistance.- 3.2. Mechanical Properties.- 3.3. Processibility.- 4. Thermal and Chemical Resistance.- 5. Uses.- 5.1. Commercial Uses.- 5.2. Use of Phenolic Fibers as Precursor Fibers.- 6. References.- 8 Flame-Resistant Wool and Wool Blends.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Wool.- 3. Research Strategies for Flame-Resistant Wool.- 3.1. Historical.- 4. Flammability Test Methods.- 5. Inorganic Compounds.- 5.1. Sodium Hydrosulfite-Formaldehyde-Borax Treatment.- 5.2. Phosphoric, Sulfuric, and Sulfamic Acids and Their Salts.- 5.3. Tris(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium Derivatives.- 5.4. Zirconium and Titanium Compounds.- 5.5. Tungsten, Molybdenum, and Vanadium Compounds.- 5.6. Tin Compounds.- 6. Organic Compounds.- 6.1. Tetrabromophthalic Anhydride and Related Compounds.- 6.2. Iodinated Wool.- 6.3. Tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) Phosphate and Related Compounds.- 6.4. Vinyl Phosphonate Esters.- 6.5. Tris(1-aziridinyl) Phosphine Oxide.- 7. Mechanisms of Flame Retardation.- 8. Safety of Flame-Resistant Fabrics.- 9. References.- 9 Smoke and Tenability: A Perspective on the Materials Approach to the Fire Problem.- 1. Introduction: Combustion versus Fire.- 2. Fire: Ignition and Materials.- 3. Smoke: A Hazard Analysis.- 4. Smoke: The Measurement Problem.- 5. Correlation: Studies of Small- and Large-Scale Smoke Tests.- 6. Smoke Hazard Control: The Fire Detector Aspect.- 7. Smoke Hazard: The Materials Perspective.- 8. Smoke Hazard Assessment: Summary.- 9. References.