Fire in the Tropical Biota: Ecosystem Processes and Global Challenges

ISBN-13: 9783642753978 / Angielski / Miękka / 2011 / 497 str.

Johann G. Goldammer

Opis

In 1977, the Volkswagen Foundation sponsored the first of a series of International Symposia on Fire Ecology at Freiburg University, Federal Republic of Germany. The scope of the congresses was to create a platform for researchers at a time when the science of fire ecology was not yet recognized and established outside of North America and Australia. Whereas comprehensive information on the fire ecology of the northern boreal, the temperate, and the mediter- ranean biotas is meanwhile available, it was recognized that conside- rable gaps in information exist on the role of fire in tropical und sub- tropical ecosystems. Thus it seemed timely to meet the growing scientific interest and public demand for reliable and updated infor- mation and to synthesize the available knowledge of tropical fire ecology and the impact of tropical biomass burning on global eco- system processes. The Third Symposium on Fire Ecology, again sponsored by the Volkswagen Foundation and held at Freiburg University in May 1989, was convened to prepare this first pantropical and multidisci- plinary monograph on fire ecology . The book, in which 46 scientists cooperated, analyzes those fire-related ecosystem processes which have not yet been described in a synoptic way. Following the editor's concept, duplication at previous efforts in describing tropical vegeta- tion patterns and dynamics was avoided. Extensive bibliographical sources are given in the reference lists of the chapters.

Spis treści

1 Fire in Tropical Ecosystems and Global Environmental Change: An Introduction.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 Deforestation in the Tropics.- 1.3 Patterns of Succession.- 1.4 Changes in Fire Regimes and Biodiversity.- 1.5 The Future of Tropical Forests and Forestry.- 1.6 Global Impacts on Climate and Soil.- 1.7 Conclusions.- References.- 2 The Impact of Droughts and Forest Fires on Tropical Lowland Rain Forest of East Kalimantan.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Climatic Variability and Fire Regimes.- 2.3 The 1982–83 ENSO, its Predecessors and the Wildfires.- 2.3.1 The 1982–83 ENSO.- 2.3.2 Predecessors.- 2.3.3 The Wildfire Scenario in 1982–83.- 2.4 Forest Regeneration after the 1982-83 Fires.- 2.4.1 The Regeneration Process.- 2.4.1.1 Primary Forest.- 2.4.1.2 Logged-Over Forest.- 2.5 Conclusions.- References.- 3 The Role of Fire in the Tropical Lowland Deciduous Forests of Asia.- 3.1 Fire: An Alien Ecological Pressure?.- 3.2 Fire Patterns in Time and Space.- 3.2.1 Timing and Origins.- 3.2.2 Fire and Fuel.- 3.3 Fire Management.- References.- 4 Fire in the Pine-Grassland Biomes of Tropical and Subtropical Asia.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Adaptive Traits of Tropical Pines to Fire.- 4.2.1 Character of Bark.- 4.2.2 Rooting Habit.- 4.2.3 Basal Sprouting.- 4.2.4 Site and Fuel Characteristics.- 4.3 Origin and Extent of Fires.- 4.4 Management Considerations.- 4.4.1 Distribution of the Pine-Grassland Fire Climax in Luzón.- 4.4.2 Main Ecological Challenges.- 4.4.2.1 Grass Species Composition and Site Degradation.- 4.4.2.2 Fire-Host Tree-Insect Interactions.- 4.5 Conclusions and Outlook.- References.- 5 Fire in Some Tropical and Subtropical South American Vegetation Types: An Overview.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Tropical Rain Forest.- 5.3 Trade Wind Forest of Venezuela and Columbia.- 5.4 “Babaçu” Palm Forest.- 5.5 Steppe.- 5.6 Savanna or “Cerrado”.- 5.7 Coastal Rain Forest.- 5.8 Subtropical Forest.- 5.9 Brazilian Pine Forest.- 5.10 Steppic Savanna or “Chaco”.- 5.11 Subtropical and Araucaria Forests of Chile and Argentina.- 5.12 Nonforested Areas.- 5.13 Exotic Planted Forests.- References.- 6 Fire in the Ecology of the Brazilian Cerrado.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Regimes and Causes of Fire in the Cerrado.- 6.3 The Abiotic Effects of Fire.- 6.3.1 Air Temperature.- 6.3.2 Soil Temperatures.- 6.3.3 Cycling of Mineral Nutrients.- 6.4 The Biotic Effects of Fire.- 6.4.1 Resistance to Fire.- 6.4.2 Primary Productivity.- 6.4.3 Stability of the Vegetation.- 6.4.4 Flowering.- 6.4.5 Dispersion of Seeds.- 6.4.6 Germination of Seeds.- 6.4.7 Fire and Fauna.- 6.5 Management by Fire.- References.- 7 Fire in the Tropical Rain Forest of the Amazon Basin.- 7.1 Ancient and “Natural” Fires.- 7.2 Deforestation and Burning in Amazonia Today.- 7.3 Types and Qualities of Burning.- 7.4 Impacts of Burning on Amazonian Vegetation.- 7.5 Indirect Effects of Burning.- References.- 8 Interactions of Anthropogenic Activities, Fire, and Rain Forests in the Amazon Basin.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 The Fire Environment.- 8.2.1 Fire History of Tropical Rain Forests.- 8.2.2 Fuel Biomass and Arrangement.- 8.2.2.1 Defining Tropical Rain Forest Fuels.- 8.2.2.2 Variability in Fuel Loads.- 8.2.2.3 Effects on Disturbance on Fuel Biomass.- 8.2.3 Microclimates and Fire in Tropical Rain Forests.- 8.2.4 Susceptibility of Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems to Fire.- 8.2.5 Fire Behavior and Biomass Consumption in Tropical Rain Forests.- 8.3 Vegetation Adaptations and Responses to Fire.- 8.3.1 Bark Properties.- 8.3.2 Anomalous Arrangement of Stem Tissues.- 8.3.3 Vegetative Sprouting.- 8.3.4 Seedbanks.- 8.3.5 Dispersal Mechanisms as Adaptations for Fire Survival.- 8.3.6 Fire-Enhanced Flowering.- 8.4 The Winners and the Losers.- References.- 9 Social and Ecological Aspects of Fire in Central America.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Socio-Economic Factors.- 9.3 Tropical Forest Resources.- 9.4 Fire in the Tropical Forests of Central America.- 9.4.1 Fire Effects on Soils.- 9.4.2 Fire Effects on Pine Forests.- 9.4.3 Fire Effects on Dry Forests.- 9.4.4 Fire Effects on the Aripo Savannas.- 9.4.5 Fire Effects on Montane Forests.- 9.5 Closing Remarks.- References.- 10 Fires and Their Effects in the Wet-Dry Tropics of Australia.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Location and Landscape.- 10.3 Proneness to Fires and the Fire’s Characteristics.- 10.3.1 Fuels.- 10.3.2 Fire Climate.- 10.3.3 Ignition Sources and Fire Frequencies.- 10.3.4 Fire Characteristics.- 10.4 Fire’s Impact on Plants: Demographic Aspects.- 10.5 Fire and Communities.- 10.5.1 Eucalypt Forests and Woodlands.- 10.5.2 “Fire-Sensitive” Communities.- 10.6 Fire Management.- 10.6.1 National Parks.- 10.6.2 Cattle Raising.- 10.6.3 Invasive Plants.- 10.6.4 Emissions.- 10.7 Conclusions.- References.- 11 Fire Management in Southern Africa: Some Examples of Current Objectives, Practices, and Problems.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Major Vegetation Types of Southern Africa.- 11.3 Management of Southern African Areas Using Fire.- 11.4 Fynbos Catchments in the Western Cape Province.- 11.4.1 Aims of Management.- 11.4.2 Fire Frequency.- 11.4.3 Fire Season.- 11.4.4 The Control of Alien Woody Weeds in Fynbos Catchments.- 11.4.5 Wildfires as a Complicating Factor in Prescribed Burning.- 11.5 Grassland Catchments in the Natal Drakensberg.- 11.5.1 Aims of Management.- 11.5.2 Fire Regime.- 11.5.3 Fire Frequency.- 11.5.4 Fire Season.- 11.5.5 Prescribed Burning.- 11.6 Fire in Savannas: Basic Principles.- 11.6.1 Natural and Modified Fire Regimes.- 11.6.2 Grass/Bush Dynamics.- 11.6.3 The Importance of Fire Intensity.- 11.7 Agricultural Areas in the Eastern Cape.- 11.7.1 Aims of Management.- 11.7.2 Research Background.- 11.7.3 Current Management.- 11.8 The Hluhluwe/Umfolozi Game Reserves Complex.- 11.8.1 Aims of Management.- 11.8.2 Background.- 11.8.3 Current Fire Management.- 11.9 The Pilanesberg National Park.- 11.9.1 Aims of Management.- 11.9.2 Research Background.- 11.9.3 Current Management.- 11.10 The Kruger National Park.- 11.10.1 Aims of Management.- 11.10.2 Research Background.- 11.10.3 Management.- 11.11 The Etosha National Park.- 11.11.1 Aims of Management.- 11.11.2 Fire Management.- 11.12 Conclusions.- References.- 12 Prescribed Fire in Industrial Pine Plantations.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 Prescribed Burning Objectives.- 12.2.1 Wildfire Hazard Reduction.- 12.2.2 Prepare Sites for Planting.- 12.2.3 Other Objectives.- 12.3 Fuel Appraisal.- 12.3.1 Natural Vegetation.- 12.3.2 Available Fuel.- 12.3.3 Fuel Moisture.- 12.3.4 Evaluating Fuel Inputs.- 12.4 Weather and Topographic Considerations.- 12.4.1 Wind.- 12.4.2 Relative Humidity.- 12.4.3 Temperature.- 12.4.4 Precipitation and Soil Moisture.- 12.4.5 Slope.- 12.5 Fire Behavior Prediction.- 12.5.1 Descriptors.- 12.5.2 Fire Behavior Models.- 12.5.3 Predicting Crown Scorch Height.- 12.6 Prescribed Burning Techniques.- 12.6.1 Backing Fire.- 12.6.2 Strip-Heading Fire.- 12.6.3 Point Source (Grid) Ignition.- 12.6.4 Edge Burning.- 12.6.5 Center and Circular (Ring) Firing.- 12.6.6 Pile and Windrow Burning.- 12.7 Prescribed Burning Plans.- 12.7.1 The Written Plan.- 12.7.2 Preparing for the Burn.- 12.7.3 Executing the Burn.- 12.7.4 Evaluating the Burn.- 12.8 Fire Effects.- 12.8.1 Effects on Trees.- 12.8.2 Effects on Woody and Herbaceous Understory Vegetation.- 12.8.3 Effects on Forest Floor Dynamics.- 12.8.4 Effects on Soil.- 12.9 Conclusions.- References.- 13 Landscapes and Climate in Prehistory: Interactions of Wildlife, Man, and Fire.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Natural Fires.- 13.2.1 Vegetation, Herbivores, and Fire.- 13.2.2 Fire and Evolution.- 13.2.3 Fire and Mammals.- 13.2.4 Fire and Hominoidea.- 13.2.4.1 Neogene Africa.- 13.2.4.2 End-Tertiary African Primates.- 13.2.4.3 Plio-Pleistocene Hominidae and Megaherbivores.- 13.3 Homo sp. and Fire.- 13.3.1 Hominid Use of Fire in Africa.- 13.3.2 Fire and the Evolution of the Brain.- 13.3.3 Increased Fire Frequency and Climate.- 13.4 Anthropogenic Fire in Eurasia.- 13.4.1 Tropical and Subtropical Eurasia.- 13.4.2 Old World Temperate Zones and the Eutrophic Line.- 13.4.3 Man and Landscapes in the Hinterland.- 13.4.3.1 The Pre-Agricultural Mediterranean Region.- 13.4.4 Life and Fire Outside the Eutrophic Line.- 13.5 The Conquest of the Forbidden Countries.- 13.5.1 Celebes-Sulawesi, the Philippines, and the Wallacean Islands.- 13.5.2 Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania (“Sahul”).- 13.5.3 America.- 13.5.4 Madagascar.- 13.5.5 New Zealand.- 13.5.6 Small Off-Shore Islands.- 13.6 Agriculture and Domestic Ungulates.- 13.7 Conclusions.- References.- 14 Fire Conservancy: The Origins of Wildland Fire Protection in British India, America, and Australia.- 14.1 Introduction.- 14.2 Home Fires: A Synoptic Fire History of Britain.- 14.3 An Empire Strategy: Fire Protection in British India.- 14.4 An American Strategy: Systematic Fire Protection.- 14.5 An Australian Strategy: Bringing System to Burning Off.- 14.6 Stirring the Ashes: Concluding Thoughts.- References.- 15 The Contribution of Remote Sensing to the Global Monitoring of Fires in Tropical and Subtropical Ecosystems.- 15.1 Introduction.- 15.2 Satellite Monitoring of Vegetation Dynamics.- 15.3 Fires in Vegetation — Data Needs.- 15.4 Fire Detection Using the AVHRR Instrument.- 15.5 Fires and Environmental Conditions.- 15.6 Post-Fire Landscapes.- 15.7 Fire in Tropical Ecosystems.- 15.7.1 The Amazon Basin.- 15.7.2 South East Asia.- 15.7.3 Africa.- 15.7.4 West Africa.- 15.7.5 Central Africa.- 15.7.5.1 Transition Rain Forest — Seasonal Forest-Woodland Savanna.- 15.7.5.2 The Central Congo Basin.- 15.8 A Global Fire Monitoring System: Conclusions.- References.- 16 Remote Sensing of Biomass Burning in the Tropics.- 16.1 Introduction.- 16.2 The NOAA-AVHRR Series.- 16.3 Remote Sensing of Fires, Smoke, and Trace Gases.- 16.4 Remote Sensing of Aerosol Characteristics.- 16.5 Satellite Estimation of Gaseous Emission from Biomass Burning.- 16.5.1 Estimate Based on the Average Emission of Particulates per Fire.- 16.5.1.1 Basic Assumptions.- 16.5.1.2 Estimation of the Emission Rates per Fire.- 16.5.1.3 Remote Sensing of Fires and Total Emitted Mass.- 16.5.1.4 Accuracy Estimates.- 16.5.1.5 Application of the Techniques.- 16.5.2 Estimate Based on Average Biomass Burned per Fire.- 16.6 Discussion.- 16.7 Conclusions.- References.- 17 NOAA-AVHRR and GIS-Based Monitoring of Fire Activity in Senegal — a Provosional Methodology and Potential Applications.- 17.1 Introduction.- 17.2 Methodology.- 17.2.1 Definition of a Scene Model.- 17.2.2 Field Radiometric Measurements.- 17.2.3 Integrated Camera and Radiometer Measurements.- 17.2.4 AVHRR Image Processing and Field Verification.- 17.2.5 GIS Manipulation.- 17.3 Results and Discussion.- 17.3.1 The Spectral Evolution of a Burned Area.- 17.3.2 Fractional Cover Burned.- 17.3.3 Preliminary Bushfire Statistics.- 17.4 Conclusions and Further Work.- References.- 18 Factors Influencing the Emissions of Gases and Particulate Matter from Biomass Burning.- 18.1 Introduction.- 18.2 Forest Fuels Chemistry.- 18.3 Combustion Processes.- 18.4 Smoke Production.- 18.4.1 Release of Carbon.- 18.4.2 Formation of Particles.- 18.4.3 Fuel Chemistry Effects on Particle Formation.- 18.4.3.1 Particle Number and Volume Distribution.- 18.4.3.2 Emission Factors for Particulate Matter.- 18.4.4 Emissions of Gases.- 18.4.4.1 Nitrogen Gases.- 18.4.4.2 Sulfur Emissions (Carbonyl Sulfide).- 18.4.4.3 Methyl Chloride.- 18.4.4.4 Carbone Monoxide.- 18.4.4.5 Methane and Nonmethane Hydrocarbons.- 18.5 Summary.- References.- 19 Ozone Production from Biomass Burning in Tropical Africa. Results from DECAFE-88.- References.- 20 Estimates of Annual and Regional Releases of CO2 and Other Trace Gases to the Atmosphere from Fires in the Tropics, Based on the FAO Statistics for the Period 1975–1980.- 20.1 Introduction.- 20.2 Computational Approach.- 20.3 Results.- 20.3.1 Closed Nonfallow Forests.- 20.3.2 Closed Fallow Forests.- 20.3.3 Open Nonfallow Forests.- 20.3.4 Open Fallow Forests.- 20.3.5 Grass Layer of Open Forests (Humid Savannas).- 20.3.6 Distribution of CO2 Emissions in 5° x 5° Grid Cells.- 20.4 Discussion.- 20.5 Conclusions.- References.- 21 Global Change: Effects on Forest Ecosystems and Wildfire Severity.- 21.1 Introduction.- 21.2 Scientific Bases for the Greenhouse Effect.- 21.3 Modeling the Atmospheric Response to the Greenhouse Effect.- 21.4 Coupling the Biosphere to the Geosphere.- 21.5 Sensitivity of the Ecosystem Forecasts to Uncertainties in the GCM’s.- 21.6 Ecosystem Stresses Which Have Not Been Included.- 21.7 Ecosystems and Potential Fire Behavior.- 21.8 The Effect of Climate Change on Lightning.- 21.9 Regional Predictions: Impact of Climate Change on Distribution of Forest Biome and Other Effects.- 21.9.1 North America.- 21.9.2 The Tropics.- 21.10 The Future.- References.- Appendix: The Freiburg Declaration on Tropical Fires.

O autorze

Fire in the Tropical Biota is the first comprehensive monograph on the fire ecology in tropical ecosystems from a pantropical and global perspective. Case studies from around the world give detailed information on the dual role of fire in maintaining and degrading tropical vegetation. They provide basic information for decision makers in tropical ecosystem management and research.