Finalization in Science: The Social Orientation of Scientific Progress

ISBN-13: 9789400970823 / Angielski / Miękka / 2011 / 318 str.

Wolf Schafer; Pete Burgess

Opis

These essays on Finalization in Science - The Social Orientation of Scientific Progress comprise a remarkable, problematic and controversial book. The authors propose a thesis about the social direction of scientific research which was the occasion of a lively and often bitter debate in Germany from 1976 to 1982. Their provocative thesis, briefly, is this: that modern science converges, historically, to the development of a number of 'closed theories', i. e. stable and relatively completed sciences, no longer to be improved by small changes but only by major changes in an entire theoretical structure. Further: that at such a stage of 'mature theory', the formerly viable norm of intra-scientific autonomy may appropriately be replaced by the social direction' of further scientific research (within such a 'mature' field) for socially relevant or, we may bluntly say, 'task-oriented' purposes. This is nothing less than a theory for the planning and social directing of science, under certain specific conditions. Understandably, it raised the sharp objections that such an approach would subordinate scientific inquiry as a free and untrammeled search for truth to the dictates of social relevance and dominant interests, even possibly to dictation and control for particularistic social and political interests.

Spis treści

Authors’ Introduction.- 1. The Social Determinants of Knowledge.- 2. The Phases of Development in Scientific Disciplines.- 2.1. Explorative phase.- 2.2. Paradigmatic phase.- 2.3. Post-paradigmatic phase.- 3. Science for Society as a Perspective.- Notes.- I. Case Studies.- Summary of Contributions.- Agricultural Chemistry. The Origin and Structure of a Finalized Science.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Demographic Context of Agricultural Chemistry.- 3. The Pre-history of Agricultural Chemistry.- 4. The Paradigm of Agricultural Chemistry.- 4.1. Cycles of reproduction.- 4.2. The constructive variation of cycles.- 4.3. The progressive problemshift in agricultural chemistry.- 5. The Institutionalization of Agricultural Chemistry.- 6. Conclusion.- Notes.- Autonomization and Finalization: A Comparison of Fermentation Research and Fluid Mechanics.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Fermentation Research — Fluid Mechanics: A Comparison of Two Theoretical Developments.- 2.1. Initial status and comparability.- 2.2. Historical overview.- 2.2.1. Fermentation research.- 2.2.2. Fluid mechanics.- 2.3. Analysis.- 2.3.1. Fermentation research.- 2.3.2. Fluid mechanics.- 3. Conclusion.- Notes.- Cancer Research. A Study of Praxis-Related Theoretical Developments in Chemistry, the Biosciences and Medicine.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Development of Chemical and Biological Theories: Definitions and Assumptions.- 3. Cancer Approaches Based on Mature Theories.- 3.1. Classification of tumours in pathological anatomy.- 3.2. Chemical theories of carcinogenesis.- 3.3. The somatic mutation theory of tumour induction.- 3.4. The biochemical approach to cancer.- 3.5. Synopsis.- 4. Current Cancer Research in Cell and Developmental Biology.- 4.1. The molecular biology of higher cells.- 4.2. Experimental linkages between basic research in cell and developmental biology and cancer research.- 4.2.1. Tumour virology.- 4.2.2. Cell biology using systems of tumour cells.- 4.2.3. The system of blood-forming cells.- 4.2.4. A coincidence of tumour research and research into early developmental phases: the teratoma.- 4.3. Transfer research.- 4.4. Synopsis.- 5. Pure Empirical Cancer Research: Human Biology and Medicine.- Notes.- II. Theoretical Considerations.- Summary of Contributions.- Finalization Revisited.- I. Problems in the Philosophy of Science.- 1. Theoretical Maturity and Closed Theories.- 1.1. The phenomenon of the continuing validity of theories.- 1.2. The concept of closed theories.- 1.3. Systematic objections.- 1.4. Closed theories and the dynamics of theory.- 2. Fundamental Theories, Special Theories and the Problem of Applying theories.- 2.1. Theory-application as a problem in the philosophy of science.- 2.2. What does it mean to say ‘A theory is valid for an object, but cannot be applied to it’?.- 2.3. Principles of application.- 3. Theoretical Maturity as the Basis for Goal-orientation.- 3.1. “Theoretical maturity” in the case studies.- 3.2. Criteria for assessing the maturity of theories.- II. Science Policy Considerations.- 1. Finalization and Direction.- 1.1. Orientation of science in the explorative phase.- 1.2. Orientation of science in the paradigmatic phase.- 1.3. Orientation of science in the post-paradigmatic phase.- 2. Theoretical vs Empirical Strategies for the Solution of Problems.- 2.1. The technical potential of theory.- 2.2. Orientation toward goals and criticism of goals.- 3. The Social Integration of Science.- 3.1. Finalization and autonomy.- 3.2. Disciplinary communities and “task communities”.- Notes.- The Scientification of Technology.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Unification of Science and Technology in the Renaissance.- 2.1. The emergence of the science-technology relationship.- 2.2. Early technical and natural sciences.- 2.3. The knowledge of possible nature — the knowledge of the nature of the possible.- 2.4. The historical evolution of the interrelation of technology and science.- 3. The Separate Development of Natural Science and Technology.- 4. The Orientation of Science Toward Technology.- 4.1. Technological developments internal to science.- 4.2. The technology-orientation in the theory of mechanics and in the mechanistic world image.- 4.3. Scientific supply to production.- 5. The orientation of technology toward science.- 6. Theoretical technology.- Notes.- Normative Finalization.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Theoretical Basis of Research in Finalization.- 2.1. Basic hypotheses reconsidered.- 2.2. Normative claims revised.- 2.3. The notion of a normative finalized science.- 3. Retraction of Basic Hypotheses and Suppression of Normative Claims.- 3.1. Theoretical retraction of basic hypotheses.- 3.2. Political suppression of normative claims.- 4. The Social Reconstruction of Science.- 4.1. A utopian perspective for science.- 4.2. Two strategies for research.- 4.3. Toward a revolution in the social paradigm of science.- Notes.- III. Prospects.- Summary of Contributions.- Science in a Crisis of Legitimation.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Theoretical and Practical Prerequisites for the Legitimation of Science.- 3. First Paradox of Utility: from Experimenting for Human Beings to Experimenting on Human Beings.- 4. Second Paradox of Utility: the Pursuit of Technology for Its Own Sake.- 5. Control of Research and Change in Values: Between Dogmatism and Scientism.- 6. Accountability for the Social Consequences of Science.- 7. Perspectives.- Notes.- Towards a Social Science of Nature.- 1. The Project of the Modern Age — Recalled for Reform.- 2. Critical Science Studies Moved Forward: from Science and Society to the Politics of Nature.- 3. Science, Politics, Nature: Traditional and Contemporary Relations.- 3.1. Science and politics.- 3.2. Science and nature.- 3.3. Politics and nature.- 4. Digression: Going Natural, Going Luddite, and Going Technocrat. Three Ways of Going Astray.- 5. The Triangle of Science, Politics, and Nature Established.- 6. Normative Concepts of Nature in Social Reality.- 7. Normative Concepts of Nature in the Social Sciences.- 8. Research Prospects.- Notes.- Introductory Note.- The Finalization Debate: A Reply to our Critics. With a Bibliography of the Finalization Discussion and Debate.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The First Proscription: It is Forbidden to Study the Progressive Goal Orientation of Science.- 2.1. The humus theory of basic research — an anti-finalist position.- 2.2. The dissolution of the coincidence of the social and cognitive autonomy of basic research — a finalist hypothesis.- 3. The Second Proscription: It is Forbidden to Advocate the Emancipatory Partisanship of Scientists.- 4. The Third Proscription: It is Forbidden to Believe in the Evolutionary Convergence of Theoretical and Practical Discourse.- 4.1. The disjunction of theory and practice — an antifinalist position.- 4.2. The convergence of theoretical and practical discourse — a finalist hypothesis.- 5. Conclusion.- Notes and References.- Bibliography of the Finalization Discussion and Debate.- I. The anti-finalization campaign and debate in the media.- III. Contributions to the academic finalization discussion and debate.- Notes on Authors.- Index of Names.