Exploration and Production of Oceanic Natural Gas Hydrate: Critical Factors for Commercialization

ISBN-13: 9783030004002 / Angielski / Twarda / 2018 / 482 str.

Michael D. Max; Arthur H. Johnson

Opis

This second edition considerably expands on the attributes of the natural gas hydrate (NGH) system that offer opportunities for the innovative use and modification of existing technology and new approaches and technology that have the potential to dramatically lower the cost of NGH exploration and production. This is a non-mathematical, descriptive text that should be understandable to non-specialists as well as to engineers concerned with the physical characteristics of an NGH reservoir and its production. It is written for readers at the university graduate level. It is also a reference for environmentalists as well as the energy community. Discussions are suitable for energy industry professionals, legislators, administrators, and regulators and those concerned with energy options and their relative advantages and disadvantages. The NGH resource is compared with physical, environmental, and commercial aspects of other gas resources. The authors' theme is that natural gas can provide the least expensive energy during the transition to and possibly within a renewable energy future and that NGH has the lowest environmental risk of all gas resources.

Recenzje

"The book is noteworthy for its complete coverage of each step in the process ... . The chapters are written as standalone research papers, with abstracts and extensive reference lists, but the book reads smoothly as a whole. ... the book is practically a how-to manual. ... With no other publication presenting close to this level of detail on the subject, the book stands alone as the definitive reference. The book is adequately, though not extravagantly, illustrated with figures." (Seth S. Haines, The Leading Edge, Vol. 39 (10), October, 2020)

Spis treści

Preface

Chapter 1 Energy Overview:  Future for Natural Gas 

1.1  Energy, GDP, and Society

1.2  The Energy Mix

1.3  Electrical Load Characteristic

1.4  Matching Power Supply to Demand

1.5. The 100% Renewable Energy Objective and the Cost and Security Roadblocks

1.6  Energy Policy in a CO2 Sensitive Power Future

1.7  Strategic  Importance of Natural Gas in the New Energy Paradigm

1.8  Natural Gas Backstop to Renewable Energy

References

Chapter 2 Economic Characteristics of Deepwater Natural Gas Hydrate 

2.1  Natural Gas Hydrate

2.1.1  NGH as a Natural Gas Storage Media

2.1.2  Solution Concentration Controls Growth

2.1.2.1  Gas Transport within a Sediment Pile

2.1.3  NGH Stability

2.1.4  The Gas Hydrate Stability Zone

2.1.5  The Seafloor may not be the Top of the GHSZ:

2.2  NGH Stability within the GHSZ: Implications for Gas Production Cost

2.3  Geology Controls NGH Paragenesis

2.4  Production-Oriented Classification of Oceanic NGH Concentrations in Permeable Strata

2.5  NGH may be the Largest Natural Gas Resource on Earth

2.6  Other NGH Concentrations that May Be Producable

2.6.1  NGH Vent Plugs

2.6.2  Stratabound Secondary Porosity NGH Concentrations

2.6.3  Blake Ridge Type Deposits

2.7  NGH in the Spectrum of Conventional and Unconventional Oil and Gas Resources

2.8  Low Environmental Risk Character of the NGH Resource

2.9  Could Low-Salinity Water be a Valuable Byproduct?

References

Chapter 3 Exploration for Deepwater Natural Gas Hydrate 

3.1  NGH Exploration

3.1.1  Deepwater and Ultra-deepwater

3.1.2  Basin modeling

3.1.3  NGH Prospect Zone.

3.2  NGH Petroleum System Analysis

3.2.1  NGH and Conventional Hydrocarbon System Analysis

3.3  Marine Sediment Host for NGH deposits

3.4. NGH Reservoir Hydrocarbon Component Expectations

3.4.1  Closed NGH Concentrations

3.4.2  Open NGH Concentrations

3.5  NGH Exploration Methods

3.5.1  Seismic Survey & Analysis

3.5.1.1  BSR (Bottom Simulating Reflector)

3.5.2  Ocean Bottom Seismometers

3.5.3  Electromagnetic (EM) Survey

3.5.4.  NGH Ground-Truthing:  Drilling

3.5.4.1  Picking Drilling Targets

3.5.5  State of NGH Exploration

3.6  NGH Exploration Potential: Glacial Period Sea Level Low Stands in the Mediterranean and  Black Seas

3.6.1  The Mediterranean Sea

3.6.2  Lowstand in the Black Sea: Sand Transfer to the Slopes

3.6.3  GHSZ and NGH Prospectability in the Mediterranean and Black Seas

3.7  National NGH Programs and Company Interest

3.7.1  Exploration Activity in Regions and Countries

3.8  Frontier Regions

References

Chapter 4 Potential High Quality Reservoir Sediments in the Gas Hydrate Stability Zone

4.1  High Quality Sand Reservoirs on Continental Margin.

4.2  Subsided Rift-Related Sediments 

4.3  Paralic Reservoirs

4.4  Aeolian - Sabkha Reservoirs

4.5  Contourites

4.6  Sequence Stratigraphy-Related Marine Sequences

4.7 The Special Case of High Quality Reservoir Potential in the Mediterranean and Black Seas

4.8  Exploration for High Quality Reservoirs References

Chapter 5 Valuation of NGH Deposits

5.1 Petrogenesis

5.1  Mineralization Grade

5.2  Valuation

5.2.1  Regional Estimates: Shelf or Basin Analysis

5.2.2  Reservoir Analysis

5.2.3  D Body Analysis

5.2.4  Cell Analysis

5.2.5 Water in the NGH Reservoir

5.3  Geophysical Characterization of NGH Deposit Settings

5.4  The Creaming Curve

References

Chapter 6 Deepwater Natural Gas Hydrate Innovation Opportunities

6.1  NGH Technology Opportunities

6.2  Exploration Opportunities

6.3  Drilling

6.3.1  Material Requirements

6.3.2  Geotechnical Attributes & Reservoir Stability

6.3.3  Wellbore Stability

6.3.4  Drilling Depths, Pressures and Temperatures

6.4  Production Opportunities

6.4.1  Temperature and Pressure:  Production Hazard Potential

6.4.2  Production Containment; Leak-Proof Production from NGH

6.5  Operations on the Seafloor

6.6  Environmental Security

6.7  Lightweight Exploration and Production

6.8  Summary of NGH Opportunity Issues and Conclusions

References

Chapter 7 Leveraging Technology for NGH Development and Production 

7.1  The Curve of Technology and Innovation

7.2  Moving to the Seafloor: Subsea Industrial Sites

7.3  Background Technology Trends

7.3.1  Convergence of AUVs, ROVs and Robotization of Seafloor Industrial Sites

7.3.2  Preparation of Seafloor Industrial Sites

7.3.3  Power Systems.

7.3.4  Data Acquisition and Management

7.3.5  Long Range Communications

7.3.6  Conventional Drilling: Ships and Semisubmersibles

7.4  Drilling

7.4.1  Riserless Drilling

7.4.2  Steerable Drilling Systems

7.4.3  Dual Gradient Drilling /Managed Pressure Drilling

7.4.4  Seafloor Hydraulic Units

7.4.5  Advanced Drilling Tools

7.4.6  Narrow Bore and Rigless Drilling

7.4.7  Inclined and Horizontal Well Bores

7.4.8  Coiled Tube Drilling

7.4.9  Multi-Pad and 'Octopus' Drilling

7.5  Production Issues

7.5.1  Gas Scrubbing, Separation, and Compression / Artificial Lift

7.5.2  Sand Control

7.5.3  Flow Assurance

7.5.4  Floating Gas Compression and Transport for Stranded Gas

7.5.5  Water Injection/Extraction Pumps

7.5.6  Realtime Monitoring of Reservoir Condtions

7. 6  Modularization of Apparatus

7. 7  Leveraging of Conventional Technology

Chapter 8 New Technology for NGH Development and Production

8.1  New Technology for the Next Step in NGH Development

8.2  Exploration

8.3  Drilling

8.3.1  NGH Drilling Issues and Objectives

8.3.1.1  Seafloor Worksite for NGH-Specific Drilling

8.3.1.2  Seawater as Drilling Fluid

8.3.2  Active Tethered Drilling

8.3.3  Active Bottom Hole Assemblies

8.3.3.1  Positioning Drilling Units

8.3.3.2  Maneuvering for Super-Directional Drilling

8.3.3.3  Drilling Tools, Wellbore Width Control, and Sidetracks

8.3.3.4  Reservoir and Environs Stability

8.3.4  NGH Well Conventional Casing Options

8.3.5  Active Wellbore Lining

8.3.5.1  Examples of Liner Systems

8.3.5.2  Special Section Liners

8.3.6  Wellbore Geometry

8.4  Production Issues

8.4.1  Sand and Sediment Fines Production

8.4 2  Produced Water

8.4.3  Gas / Water Separation

8.4.4  Reservoir Management

8.4.5  Flow Assurance

8.4.6  Production Risers / Pipelines

8.4.7  Communications, Monitoring, and Active Reservoir Control

8.5  Well Abandonment

8.6  NGH as a Geotechnical Material

8.7  Role of Intellectual Property

8.8  Technology Readiness Levels (TRL)

8.10  Optimizing Leveraged and Innovative Technology for NGH Development

References

Chapter 9 Offshore Operations and Logistics 

9.1.  NGH Exploration and Production Operations

9.2  Access

9.3  Open Oceanic Regions

9.4  Arctic Ocean

9.4.1  E&P Operation enablement

9.4.2  Factors determining icebreaker requirements

9.4.3  Eurasian Icebreaker fleet

9.4.4  North American Arctic access

9.4.5  Search and Rescue (SAR)

9.4.6  Arctic Spill Response

9.5  Other Frontier Areas

References

Chapter 10 Energy Resource Risk Factors 

10.1  Factoring Risk into Development of Energy Resources

10.2  Risk Factors of Natural Gas Resource Types

10.2.1  Gas Purity

10.2.2  Sediment Host

10.2.3  Flows Under Own Pressure

10.2.4  Recovery Techniques

10.2.5  Injection of Materials and Water Required

10.2.6  Temperature and Pressure

10.2.7  Impact on Water Resources

10.2.8  Water & Air Quality Risk

10.2.9  Blowout Risk & Atmospheric Greenhouse Feedback Potential

10.2.10  Reservoir and production performance

10.3  Risk of Overdependence on Natural Gas 

10.4  Environmental Risk to Energy Projects and Production

10.5  NGH Environmental Risk

10.5.1  Tracking of Ocean Environmental Impact

10.6  Geohazards

10.7  Risks of Non-NGH Energy Sources

10.8  Regulations, Leasing, Tax Matters, and Law

10.9  Energy Prices

10.10  Business Cycles

10.11  Exploration Risk

10.12  New Technology Risk

10.13  Downstream Issues and Risk Factors

10.13.1  Natural Gas Hydrate Resource Cycle

10.13.2  Synthetic Implications of NGH used as a storage and transport media

10.14  Safety Management

10.15  Risk-Cost-Benefit Analysis

10.16.  Discussion

References

Chapter 11 Elements of Commerciality 

11.1  State of the Industry

11.2  Conventional and Shale Gas and Oil Dominate Markets

11.3  Underlying Economics of the Natural Gas Commodity

11.3.1  Funding NGH E&P; lessons from the Shale Patch

11.4  Supply, Demand and Natural Gas Resources and Markets

11.5  The Emerging World Gas Market

11.6  A World Price for Natural Gas

11.7  NGH Factors

11.7.1  NGH Conversion Techniques

11.7.2  Production Rates

11.7.3  Permeability in a NGH Concentration and its Significance for NGH Conversion and Gas Production

11.7.3.1  Does Concentrated NGH have Micro-Permeability?

11.7.4  Production Rate Profiles

11.7.4.1  Pressure Management Summary

11.7.5  Infrastructure

11.7.6  Solution for Stranded Gas

11.8.  How Soon NGH?

References

O autorze

Michael D. Max has a broad background including geology, geophysics, chemistry, acoustics, and information technology. He has a BSc from the University of Wisconsin, Madison, an MSc from the University of Wyoming, and a PhD from Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland. He has worked as a geologist / geophysicist for the Geological Survey of Ireland, the Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC, and the NATO Undersea Research Center, La Spezia, Italy. From 1999 to 2011 Max was CEO and Head of Research for Marine Desalination Systems LLC, which established a hydrate research laboratory and explored industrial applications of gas hydrate. He is the author of many scientific publications and four textbooks, and holds over 40 patents. He assisted in the writing of the US Gas Hydrate Research and Development Act of 2000. Michael is a member of the Methane Hydrate Advisory Committee of the Department of Energy 2014-2019, and is Co-Chair, Diving Committee of the Marine Technology Society. He is an Adjunct Professor at the School of Geological Sciences of University College, Dublin, Ireland.  HEI has been closed.  Michael is now carrying on his R&D activities through Max Systems LLC and University College, Dublin, Ireland.

Art Johnson was a founding partner of Hydrate Energy International, LLC (HEI). Prior to forming HEI in 2002, Art had been a geologist with Chevron for 25 years, where his career included most aspects of hydrocarbon exploration and development. Art was instrumental in initiating Chevron’s Gulf of Mexico program for gas hydrate studies in 1995. He advised Congress and the White House on energy issues starting in 1997, and chaired advisory committees for several Secretaries on Energy. He had a longstanding role coordinating the research efforts of industry, universities, and government agencies. Art served as the Gas Hydrate Lead Analyst for the “Global Energy Assessment,” an international project undertaken by the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) of Vienna, Austria and supported by the World Bank, UN organizations, and national governments that evaluated the energy resource bases of the entire planet with a view to addressing energy needs in the decades to come. He was Chair of the Gas Hydrate Committee of the Energy Minerals Division of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG) and was also very active in his Methodist Church and in helping with hurricane relief and peacemaking activities. Much to the sorrow of his good friend and co-author, and of countless other friends, Art unexpectedly passed away on August 9, 2017.

Blurb

This second edition provides extensive information on the attributes of the Natural Gas Hydrate (NGH) system, highlighting opportunities for the innovative use and modification of existing technologies, as well as new approaches and technologies that have the potential to dramatically lower the cost of NGH exploration and production.

Above all, the book compares the physical, environmental, and commercial aspects of the NGH system with those of other gas resources.  It subsequently argues and demonstrates that natural gas can provide the least expensive energy during the transition to, and possibly within, a renewable energy future, and that NGH poses the lowest environmental risk of all gas resources.

Intended as a non-mathematical, descriptive text that should be understandable to non-specialists as well as to engineers concerned with the physical characteristics of NGH reservoirs and their production, the book is written for readers at the university graduate level.  It offers a valuable reference guide for environmentalists and the energy community, and includes discussions that will be of great interest to energy industry professionals, legislators, administrators, regulators, and all those concerned with energy options and their respective advantages and disadvantages.