ISBN-13: 9783642955365 / Angielski / Miękka / 2012 / 299 str.
ISBN-13: 9783642955365 / Angielski / Miękka / 2012 / 299 str.
Most books on epidemiology have treated the subject from a statistical, mathematical or computer applicational point of view. However, experiments must be performed first to provide the data for models which in turn can then be proven by further experimentation. This mutual interplay of theory and empirics gives epidemiology its scientific thrust and charm. This book provides a choice of methods for varying applications and objectives, covering all important aspects for the designing of experiments. Furthermore, the reader is supplied with solutions to his experimental problems and many "tricks of the trade." The newcomer to the field will also profit by this methodology guide.
I General Techniques.- 1. Experiments and Procedures in Epidemiological Field Studies.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Planning and Conduct of Field Experiments.- 2.1 Formulation of the Hypothesis and Selection of Variables.- 2.2 Single-Plot Field Experimentation.- 2.3 Sampling in Single-Plot Experiments.- 2.4 Data Acquisition and Handling.- 2.5 Experimental Error.- 3 Combination of Field and Growth Chamber Experiments in Studying Epidemiological Problems.- 3.1 Examples for the Combination of Field and Growth Chamber Experiments.- 3.1.1 Manipulating the Pathogen.- 3.1.2 Manipulating the Host — The Use of Trap Plants.- 3.1.3 Manipulating the Environment.- 3.2 Conclusions.- 4 References.- 2. Techniques of Controlled-Condition Experiments.- 1 Introduction.- 2 The Controlled Habitat.- 2.1 Light.- 2.2 Temperature.- 2.3 Humidity.- 2.4 Free Leaf Moisture.- 2.5 Relation of the Controlled Habitat to the Field Habitat.- 3 The Choice of Hosts and Pathogens.- 3.1 The Ideal Host.- 3.2 The Ideal Pathogen.- 3.3 Relation of the Reaction of Hosts and Pathogens Under Controlled Conditions to Their Reaction in the Field 23.- 4 Types of Controlled-Condition Experiments.- 4.1 Monocyclic Experiments: Inoculation, Infection and Colonization, Sporulation.- 4.1.1 Inoculation.- 4.1.2 Infection and Colonization.- 4.1.3 Sporulation.- 4.2 Polycyclic Experiments.- 4.3 Auxiliary Experiments.- 4.4 Relation of Results Obtained Under Controlled Conditions to Results Obtained in the Field.- 5 Preparation of Data for Simulation.- 6 Epilogue.- 7 References.- II Measurement and Their Analysis.- 3. Measuring Plant Disease.- 1 Introduction.- 2 About Terms.- 3 Sources of Error in Disease Assessment.- 3.1 Individual Errors.- 3.2 Object-Dependent Errors.- 4 Sampling Techniques for Disease Assessment.- 5 Techniques used in Measuring Disease.- 5.1 Actual Measurement of Disease Intensity.- 5.2 Use of Keys, Standard Diagrams and Classes of Disease Intensities.- 5.3 Use of Incidence Values to Estimate Severity Values.- 5.4 Automatic Measurement and Remote Sensing.- 5.5 Measurement of Disease Intensities Through Spore Catches.- 6 Specific Applications of Disease Measurement.- 6.1 Crop Measurement.- 6.2 Assessment of Several Diseases in the Same Sampling Unit.- 6.3 Disease Assessment for Models and Forecasts.- 6.4 Differences Between Disease Assessment on Shoot and Root Diseases.- 6.5 Some Implications in Disease Assessment for Crop Losses.- 6.6 Measuring Disease in Surveys.- 7 References.- 4. The Measurement and Analysis of the Effects of Crop Development on Epidemics.- 2 The Dynamic Interaction of Host and Pathogen.- 2.1 The Pathogen Affects the Host.- 2.1.1 Plant Growth Dynamics and Loss of Photosynthetic Tissue.- 2.1.2 Growth Stimulation Caused by Disease.- 2.2 The Host Affects the Pathogen.- 2.2.1 Host Susceptibility.- 2.2.2 New Tissue.- 2.2.3 Plant-Altered Environment.- 3 Measurement and Analysis of Host Development.- 3.1 Physiological Time.- 3.2 Host Phenology.- 3.3 Measurements for Growth Analysis.- 4 Measuring the Dynamic Interaction.- 4.1 Measuring Time- and Space-Dependent Susceptibility.- 4.2 Measuring Disease in the Presence of Changing Host Tissue.- 4.2.1 Increases in the Amount of Susceptible Tissue.- 4.2.2 Decreases in the Amount of Susceptible Tissue.- 5 Analysis of the Dynamics Interaction.- 5.1 Analysis of Changing Susceptible Host Tissue.- 5.2 Analysis of Changing Asymptotes.- 5.3 Analysis by Simulation.- 6 Considerations and Modifications of Techniques for the Interaction of Perennial Crops.- 6.1 Survival Strategy of Perennials.- 6.2 Size of Perennials.- 6.3 Time-Dependent Susceptibility of Perennials.- 6.4 Sampling and Assessment of Perennials.- 7 Summary and Conclusions.- 8 Acknowledgments.- 9 References.- 5. Quantitative Assessment of Inoculum Production, Dispersal, Deposition, Survival and Infectiousness in Airborne Diseases.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Production, Dispersal and Buildup of Inoculum.- 2.1 Trapping Spores in the Air.- 2.2 Collecting Spores from Leaves.- 3 Survival and Infectiousness.- 3.1 Survival of Overseasoning Inoculum.- 3.2 Survival of Inoculum in the Season.- 3.3 Survival of Spores on Plants Under Controlled Conditions.- 3.4 Survival of Detached Spores Under Controlled Conditions.- 3.5 Techniques for Testing the Effects of Radiation.- 4 Testing Inoculum Potential with Potted Trap Plants.- 5 Epilogue.- 6 References.- 6. Analysis of the Spatial Pattern of Soilborne Pathogens.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Objectives and Requirements for the Analysis of Spatial Pattern of Soilborne Pathogens.- 2.1 Metameters for Measurement of Spatial Pattern.- 2.2 Definable Entities for Inoculum, Infection and Disease.- 2.3 Sampling Units and Sampling Method.- 3 Analysis of Unmapped Data.- 3.1 Goodness-of-Fit to Probability Functions.- 3.2 Indices of Aggregation.- 4 Analysis of Mapped Data.- 4.1 Analysis of Dichotomous Data.- 4.1.1 Transects.- 4.1.2 Transects Across Diffuse Clumps of Disease.- 4.1.3 Disease Mosaics.- 4.1.4 Two-Dimensional Lattice Maps.- 4.2 Analysis of Discrete and Continuous Variables.- 5 References.- 7. Electronic Monitoring and Use of Microprocessors in the Field.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Environmental Data Acquisition Systems.- 2.1 Data Recording.- 2.2 Data Communication.- 3 Monitoring Weather Variables.- 3.1 Temperature.- 3.2 Environmental Water.- 3.2.1 Atmospheric Humidity and Water Potentials.- 3.2.2 Liquid Water on Living Foliage and Fruits.- 3.2.3 Wetness of Dead Tissues.- 3.2.4 Rain.- 3.3 Wind.- 3.4 Irradiance.- 4 Monitoring Soil Variables.- 4.1 Soil Temperature.- 4.2 Soil Water.- 5 Monitoring Sites.- 6 References.- 8. The Analysis of Weather Factors in Epidemiology.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Some Practical Hints for the Monitoring of Weather Factors.- 3 Techniques in Use for the Analysis of Biometeorological Data.- 3.1 Temperature.- 3.1.1 Mean Temperatures and Daily Course of Temperature.- 3.1.2 Frequency of Temperatures.- 3.1.3 Temperature Sums.- 3.1.4 Temperature-Response-Functions.- 3.2 Humidity.- 3.2.1 Relative Humidity.- 3.2.2 Duration of Wetness.- 3.3 Temperature-Humidity Combination.- 3.4 Precipitation.- 3.5 Wind and Turbulence.- 3.6 Light and Radiation.- 4 Estimation of Missing Micrometeorological Data.- 5 Epilogue.- 6 References.- III Special Topics.- 9. The Analysis of Effects of Control Measures on the Development of Epidemics.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Epidemiological Principles of Control.- 3 Analysis of the Effect of Sanitation.- 3.1 The Sanitation Ratio.- 3.2 An Alternative Hypothesis for the Effect of Sanitation.- 3.3 Methods to Test the Effect of Sanitation.- 3.4 Other Considerations of Sanitation on the Epidemic.- 4 Analysis of Effects of Control Measures on Epidemic Rate.- 4.1 Methods.- 4.2 Analysis of Disease Progress.- 4.3 Disease Progress After a Single Application of a Fungicide.- 4.3.1 The Theoretical Disease-Progress Curve.- 4.3.2 The Actual Disease-Progress Curve..- 4.3.3 Prediction of the Increase in Disease.- 5 Epilogue.- 6 References.- 10. How to Conduct and Measure Fungicide Resistance.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Measurement of Resistance.- 2.1 Principles.- 2.2 Use of Artificial Media.- 2.3 Use of Living Plant Material.- 3 Estimation of Resistance Risk.- 3.1 Emergence of Resistance on Agar Medium.- 3.2 Fitness and Buildup of Resistance in the Field.- 3.3 Use of Models.- 4 Detection and Monitoring of Resistance in the Field.- 4.1 Sampling.- 4.2 Handling and Processing of Samples.- 4.3 Recording and Interpretation of Results.- 5 Epilogue.- 6 References.- 11. Analysis of Virulence in Pathogen Populations.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Methods of Virulence Analysis.- 2.1 Sampling the Population.- 2.1.1 Sampling Techniques.- 2.1.2 Sample Size.- 2.1.3 Frequency and Timing of Sampling.- 2.2 Testing the Sample.- 2.2.1 Design of Virulence Tests.- 2.2.2 Reading Infection Types or Counting Colonies.- 2.2.3 Measuring Agressiveness.- 2.3 Analyzing the Data.- 2.3.1 Virulence Frequencies and Associations.- 2.3.2 Race Designation.- 2.3.3 Measuring Virulence and Race Dynamics.- 2.3.4 Measuring Pathogen Diversity.- 3 References.- 12. Analysis of Epidemiological Components in Yield Loss Assessment.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Components Analysis in Yield Loss Assessment.- 2.1 Analysis of the Disease Progress Curve (DPC).- 2.2 Relating DPC Components to Empirical Loss Models.- 3 Components Analysis in Crop Loss Assessment.- 3.1 The Problem of Scale and Aggregation.- 3.2 Crop-Pest Loss Models.- 4 Concluding Remarks.- 5 References.- 13. How to Develop Plant Disease Forecasters.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Fundamental Forecasting Systems.- 2.1 Infection.- 2.1.1 Experimental Procedures.- 2.1.2 Data Analysis.- 2.1.3 Other Physical Factors and Nonconstancy.- 2.1.4 Vectors.- 2.1.5 Inoculum Level.- 2.2 Other Disease Cycle Components.- 3 Empirical Forecasting Systems.- 3.1 Single Season Predictions.- 3.1.1 Qualitative Development of Forecasters Based on Weather.- 3.1.2 Qualitative Development of Forecasters Based on Disease Intensity.- 3.1.3 Quantitative Development of Forecasters.- 3.2 Multiple Season Predictions.- 3.2.1 Qualitative Development.- 3.2.2 Quantitative Development.- 3.3 Combining Fundamental and Empirical Forecasting Systems.- 4 Field Testing.- 5 Implementation — Delivery and Operation.- 6 Summary and Conclusions.- 7 References.- 14. Techniques for Studying Aphid-Borne Virus Epidemiology.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Detecting Plant-Pathogenic Viruses in Plant and Vector Hosts.- 2.1 Visual Inspection of Infected Plants.- 2.2 Laboratory Procedures for Detecting Viruses in Plants and Vectors.- 2.3 Indexing for Disease Progress in the Field.- 2.4 Indexing Incoming Infection in the Field.- 3 Sources of Plant-Pathogenic Viruses.- 4 Assaying for Vector Potential.- 4.1 Laboratory Assays.- 4.2 Field Live Assays.- 5 Vector Potential.- 5.1 Vector Abundance and Activity.- 5.2 Monitoring Movement and Host-Seeking Activity.- 6 Epilogue.- 7 References.- 15. Techniques in Quantitative Nematology.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Nematode Community characteristics.- 2.1 Spatial and Temporal Population Patterns.- 2.2 Sampling.- 3 Role of Laboratory and Greenhouse Research.- 4 Use of Artificial Infestations in Fields.- 5 Utilizing Natural Field Infestation.- 5.1 Exploitation of Contagious Spatial Patterns.- 5.2 Means of Establishing Ranges of Population Densities.- 5.3 Following an Epidemic over Prolonged Periods.- 6 Modeling Approaches for Nematode-Induced Epidemics.- 6.1 Simple Population Models.- 6.2 Collecting Data to Derive Models.- 6.3 Formulating the Models.- 6.4 Validation.- 7 Epilogue.- 8 References.- 16. Use of Geophytopathological Information.- 1 Introduction: Definitions — Objectives.- 2 Data Collection.- 3 Data Documentation.- 4 Ecological Interrelationships.- 5 Forecasting.- 6 References.- 17. Monitoring and Mapping Long-Distance Spread of Plant Pathogens.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Factors that Facilitate Long-Distance Dispersal and Deposition.- 3 Methodology of Monitoring.- 3.1 Ground Surveys.- 3.2 Monitoring Dispersal from the Air.- 3.2.1 Monitoring the Synoptic Situation.- 3.2.2 Use of Weather Satellites.- 3.2.3 Validation of Disease by LANDSAT.- 3.3 Future Trends in Aerial Reconnaissance.- 4 References.- IV The Synopsis of Experimental Results.- 18. Modeling Epidemics of Root Diseases and Development of Simulators.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Scope, Purpose, and Types of Models in Plant Disease Epidemiology.- 3 Systems Analysis in Plant Pathology.- 4 Simulation Modeling and General System Theory.- 5 Simulation Models for Root Diseases.- 5.1 Primary Infection.- 5.2 Colonization and Inoculum Production.- 5.3 Effects of Colonization on Plant Growth and Yield.- 5.4 Secondary Infection.- 6 Interfacing Epidemiological Models with Crop and Single Plant Growth Models.- 7 References.- 19. Modelling Epidemics of Polycyclic Foliar Diseases and Development of Simulators.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Modelling of Polycyclic Epidemics.- 2.1 Objectives of Modelling Epidemics.- 2.2 Steps in Modelling Epidemics.- 2.2.1 Restriction of Models.- 2.2.2 Approaches to Modelling.- 2.2.2.1 The Analytic Approach.- 2.2.2.2 The Synthetic Approach.- 2.2.3 Experimentation.- 2.2.4 Development of Models.- 2.2.5 Testing of Models.- 2.2.6 Implementation and Application of Models.- 3 Combination of Models.- 3.1 Combination of Crop Growth and Plant Disease Models.- 3.2 Combination of Epidemiological Models.- 4 Concluding Remarks.- 5 References.- 20. The Methodology of Comparative Epidemiology.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Some Basic Aspects of Comparative Epidemiology.- 2.1 The General Framework.- 2.2 Terminology.- 2.3 Published Evidence as Data Base for Comparison.- 3 Comparative Experiments.- 3.1 The Scope.- 3.2 The Criteria.- 3.2.1 Comparison of the Pathosystems and Population Levels.- 3.2.2 Comparison of Epidemics, Their Behaviour and Patterns.- 3.2.3 Comparison of Soilborne Diseases and their Epidemics.- 3.2.4 Comparison at the Community Level.- 4 Tools and Procedures in Comparative Epidemiology.- 4.1 Data Reduction and Curve Approximation.- 4.2 Use of Coefficients and Multivariate Statistical Methods.- 4.3 Use of Computers in Comparison.- 5 Conclusions.- 6 References.
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