Emerging Concepts in Endocrine Structure and Functions

ISBN-13: 9789811690150 / Angielski / Twarda / 2022

Opis

This book uniquely presents conceptual understanding as well as advancements in the field of endocrinology. It emphasizes the harmonization between the function and the structure of different endocrine glands in the body. The book's initial chapters introduce hormones' biological synthesis, structure, function, and signaling pathways. The subsequent chapters examine the functional relationship between hypothalamus and pituitary gland and its leading and regulating roles on other endocrine and non- endocrine organs.  A separate chapter discusses the synergistic functions of adrenal glands and pineal gland in the circadian rhythm and analyze the role of corticoids in carbohydrate and mineral metabolism. Furthermore, the book addresses the role of growth hormones, prolactin, gonads regulating hormones, adrenocorticotropin, thyroid hormones, parathormone, gluco- and mineral corticoids, insulin and glucagon, Physiology of bone remodeling is presented with the role of parathyroid glands, C cells and vitamin D explaining the bone as an endocrine organ. The regulation of male and female reproductive functions is represented well. Lastly, the book reviews the novel endocrine role and metabolic aspects of adipose tissue as an endocrine tissue and its relationship to inflammatory diseases, insulin resistance and many metabolic disorders. The book introduces key parts for endocrine’s stem cell in each gland is discussed in term of its survival, proliferation, migration, homing, differentiation and its regeneration and remodeling roles.

Spis treści

Table of Contents

Introduction

            Description for the aim of the book and the book contents

 

 

 

Chapter 1

 

INTRODUCTION TO ENDOCRINOLOGY

 

1.       Introduction.

2.       Comprehensive and classical definition of hormones.

3.       Hormonal delivery signalling.

3.1.  Intracrine signal

3.2.  Juxtacrine signalling.

3.3.  Paracrine signalling.

3.4.  Autocrine signalling.

3.5.  Endocrine signalling.

3.6.         Protrusions signalling 

4.      Endocrine glands, location and functions at glance.

    4.1. Pituitary gland and the hypothalamus control…………………………..

4.2.  Thyroid gland.

4.3.  Parathyroid gland.

4.4.  Adrenal glands.

4.5.  Pineal gland.

4.6.  Pancreas.

4.7.  Ovaries.

4.8.  Testes.

    4.9.    Secondary endocrine organs……………………………………………….

5.      Update on Ectopic hormone secretion……………………………………………………

6.       General characteristics of the endocrine glands.

7.       Chemical classification of hormones.

7.1.  Peptides, Proteins and Glycoprotein hormones.

7.2.  Glycoprotein hormones.

7.3.  Steroid hormones.

7.4.  Amino-acid derived hormones.

7.5.  Fatty acid derivatives hormones (Eicosanoids).

8.       Conclusion.

 

References list

 

 

  Chapter 2

 

BIOLOGICAL SYNTHESIS OF HORMONES IN ENDOCRINE CELLS

1.      Introduction.

2.      Group one: Proteins and polypeptides.

2.1.  Synthesis of the Preprohormone.

2.2.  Production of the Prohormone.

2.3.  Release of the Hormone.

3.      Group Two: Amino acid derivatives.

3.1.  Synthesis of Adrenaline and noradrenaline (epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine).

3.2.  Synthesis of Thyroid gland Hormones.

3.2.1. Thyroglobulin.

3.2.2. Glycoprotein role in Thyrocyte.

3.2.3. Synthesis of thyroid hormones in Follicular cells.

4.       Group Three: Steroid hormones.

5.        Group four: Terpene hormones

6.    Sixteen Principal features of hormones

7.    Life cycle of  the hormone from synthesis to elimination

   8.  Emerging strategy for hormone/ receptor degradation as a therapy

   9.  Methods for studing the functions of the endocrine glands 

10. Conclusion.

References list

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 3

 

MECHANISM OF HORMONES SECRETION AND ACTION

 

1.      INTRODUCTION..

2.      Mechanism of target cell signalling.

2.1 Second messengers.

2.2.  The mechanism of action of hormones in the target cell

3. Main functions of the endocrine system..

3.1. Endocrine system coordinates body functions.

3.2. Endocrine system controls stem cells system in the body: The missing role

3.2.1. Effect of Endocrine and hormonal signals on stem cell in life stages

3.2.2. New role: Endocrine system helps in overcoming the limitation of stem cell therapy:

3.3. Hormones govern receptor numbers.

3.4. Hormones regulate ion transport and membrane permeability.

3.5. Hormones regulate substances and minerals in the blood and cells.

3.6. The circadian rhythm of the hypothalamus -pituitary.

3.7. Completion of growth, sexual, differentiation and mental maturation:

3.8. Elasticity and plasticity of human Endocrine system

3.9. Endocrine Physiology and adaptation to stressors.

4.    Factors regulating hormones secretion.

4.1.  Regulation of hormone concentration in the circulatory system by humoral factors.

4.2.  Hypothalamic control of the pituitary gland.

4.3.  Direct neuronal stimulation on endocrine glands and cells.

4.4.  Effect of external environment, genetics, and lifestyle on hormones secretion.

5.      Relationships between hormones actions.

5.1.  Regulatory and domination relationship.

5.2.  Alternating relationship.

5.3.  Antagonistic relationship.

5.4.  Permissive action.

5.5.  Cooperative relationship.

6.      Conclusion.

 

References list

 

 

 

Chapter 4

  

THE PITUITARY GLAND: FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIP WITH THE HYPOTHALAMUS, STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY

1.       Introduction

2.       Histological Structure of the pituitary

 

        

2.1.  Adenohypophysis (Chromophobes & Chromophils)

2.2. Neurohypophysis

2.3.  Stem cells marginal zone and Folliculostellate

3.       Endocrine physiological functions of the hypothalamus

 

3.1.  Hypothalamus releasing stimulatory hormones on the pituitary

3.2.  Hypothalamus inhibitory factors on the pituitary

3.3.  Appetite regulation

3.4.  Water balance

3.5.  Body temperature regulation

3.6.  Circadian rhythmicity

3.7.  Resurgent view: Hypothalamic stem cells (the tanycytes)

          

             Hormones of the pituitary gland

4.       Growth Hormone

4.1.  Characters of Growth Hormone

4.2. Physiological functions of Growth hormone

4.2.1.        Stimulation of bone and cartilage growth

4.2.2.        GH regulates metabolism

4.2.3.        GH participates in haematopoiesis. 

4.2.4.        Growth hormone participates in puberty

4.2.5.        GH and glucocorticoids are required in other essential functions

4.2.6.        GH retains mineral and water

4.3.  Regulation of GH release

4.4.  Disruption in GH levels

5.       Prolactin and its nature

5.1.  Physiological functions of PRL

·      PRL function on mammary gland and lactation

·      Growth and angiogenesis effects of PRL

·      Osmoregulation effect of PRL

·      PRL regulation of reproduction and food intake

·      Effects of PRL on Brain and behaviour

·      Prolactin immune-effect

·      PRL has potent multi-signalling effect

5.2.  Regulation of PRL release and functions

5.3.  PRL in males

6.       Thyroid Stimulating hormone

6.1.  Nature of Thyroid-stimulating hormone

6.2.  Physiological functions of TSH

6.3.  Regulation of TSH secretion

7.       Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)

7.1.   ACTH nature

7.2.  Physiological release and levels of ACTH

7.3.  Physiological functions of ACTH

7.4.  Regulation of ACTH secretion

8.       Gonadotropins

8.1.  Follicle stimulating hormone and Luteinizing hormone, their nature

8.2.  Blood Levels of FSH and LH

8.3.  Functions of FSH and LH

8.3.1.        Gonadotropins functions in males

8.3.2.        Gonadotropins functions in females

8.4.  Human Chorionic Gonadotropin

8.4.1.        hCG sources

8.4.2.        hCG nature

8.4.3.        Physiological functions of hCG

8.5.  Human Menopausal Gonadotropin

8.6.  Physiological activities of HMG

9.       Hormones of Posterior pituitary

9.1.  Production of oxytocin and Vasopressin/ADH

9.2.  Functions of oxytocin

9.3.  Functions of Vasopressin/ADH)

10.   Opioid categories

10.1.          Endorphin

10.2.          Enkephalins

10.3.          Functions of endorphin and enkephalin

11.   Competent role of stem and wave of progenitor cells in the pituitary

12.   Conclusion

References list

 

 

 

Chapter 5

 

THYROID GLANDS: PHYSIOLOGY AND STRUCTURE

 

1.      Introduction.

2.      Functional structure of the thyroid gland.

3.      Importance of thyroid gland.

4.      Physiological functions of the thyroid gland.

5.    New functions of thyroid hormones

6.      Phases of the production and secretion of the thyroid hormones.

6.1.  Phase 1: Hormone production.

6.2.  Phase 2: Storage of hormones.

6.3.  Phase 3: Proteolysis of thyroglobulin and hormones secretion.

6.4.  Phase 4: Conversion and forms of thyroid hormones.

7.      Thyroid hormone metabolism or deiodination.

8.      Physiological functions of the thyroid hormones and mechanism of action.

9.      Regulation of thyroid hormones.

10.    Goiter and thyroid diseases.

11.   Stem/progenitor cells of the thyroid, the promising alternative.

12.          Conclusion  

References list

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 6

 

Bone Remodeling Physiology:

Regulation of Parathyroid Glands, C Cells, Vitamin D & Bone as an Endocrine organ

1.       Introduction & Bone remodeling 2.       Functional structure of the parathyroid glands 3.       Importance and function of parathyroid glands

4.       New ectopic’s parathyroid hormone synthesis in adipose tissues

5.       Extracellular calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) 6.       Calcium distribution 7.       Regulating hormones of Ionized calcium’s metabolism 8.       Bone cells: Osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts 9.       Bone as an Endocrine and Paracrine organ 9.1.Osteokines

9.1.1.      Osteocalcin

9.1.2.      Sclerostin

9.1.3.      Lipocalin

10.     Functions of Parathormone (PTH) and PTHrP-1

10.1.         Bone cells & formation: balance, remodeling & repair

10.2.         Effect of rhPTH at aging

10.3.         Paradoxical and therapeutic functions of PTH

10.4.         PTH functions on Intestines

10.5.         PTH effects on Kidney

10.6.         PTH effects on placenta

10.7.         Proliferation prompting-effect

10.8.         PTH's effect on Breast and lactation

10.9.          Effect of PTH on the heart

11.   Calcitonin and Calcitonin gene-related peptide

11.1.        Functions of Calcitonin and Calcitonin gene-related peptide

12.    The Vitamin D3 endocrine system (cholecalciferol)

12.1.        Th most important active metabolites of Vitamin D

12.2.        Conversion of vitamin d to active forms

12.3.        Physiological functions of active vitamin d

13.   PTH- dihydroxyvitamin D3 system

14.   Thymus generates precursor cells for the parathyroid cells

15.    Conclusion

References list

 

 

 

Chapter 7

 

ADRENAL GLANDS, PINEAL GLAND physiology AND THE CIRCADIAN RHYTHM

1.       Introduction: An admirable role of the adrenal and pineal glands in circadian rhythm   

2.       Suprachiasmatic nucleus as pace maker of circadian rhythm

3.        Structure of adrenal gland        

 3.1. Adrenocortical stem/progenitor cells

3.2. The Adrenal Medulla

3.2.1.        The catecholamines 

3.2.2.          Regulation Of Catecholamine Secretion  

3.2.3.          Concentration of Adrenaline  

3.2.4.          Receptors of catecholamines 

3.2.5.          Catecholamine Physiological Functions 

3.3.  The Adrenal Cortex

3.3.1.          Characteristics of Adrenal’s Cortex Hormones 

3.3.2.          The Adrenal Cortex Zones 

3.3.2.1. Function of Zona reticularis

3.3.2.2. Function of Zona Fasciculata

3.3.2.2.1. Extra-adrenal organs and tissues synthesize local glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids

3.3.2.3. Functions of Zona glomerulosa

3.4. Stress-inducible stem cells in adrenal glands

4.       Pineal gland  

4.1. Pineal size and cellular structure

4.2.  Pineal gland hormones

4.3.      Melatonin synthesis

4.4.  Pineal gland functions and the physiological roles of melatonin.

4.5.  Regulation of melatonin secretion.

4.6.  Stem cell/ progenitors in pineal gland.

5.       Conclusion  

References list

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 8

 

ENDOCRINE PANCREAS AND GLUCOSE METABOLISM

 

1.      Introduction

2.      Structure of Pancreatic islets

3.      Pancreatic Innervation

4.      Beta cell hormones

4.1. Insulin & C- peptides

4.2. Physiological and metabolic functions of insulin

4.3. Glucose transporters

4.4. Carbohydrate metabolism

4.4.1.      Carbohydrate metabolism in the liver

4.4.2.       Carbohydrate metabolism in the muscle tissues

4.4.3.      Carbohydrate metabolism in adipose tissue

4.5. Protein metabolism in the liver

4.5.1.      Protein metabolism in the liver

4.5.2.      Protein metabolism in muscle tissue

4.6. Fat metabolism

4.6.1.      Fat metabolism in the liver

4.6.2.      Fat metabolism in the muscles

4.6.3.      Fat metabolism in adipose tissue

4.7.   Insulin maintains weight

4.8. The relation between Immunity and insulin imbalance

4.9. Effect of Insulin imbalance on cardiovascular performance

4.10.        Updates on insulin physiology on brain: Source and target

4.10.1.   Is brain a source of insulin?

4.10.2.    Insulin physiology on brain

4.11.        Other functions

5.      Factors regulating insulin secretion

6.      Circadian clocks and insulin. 

7.      The therapeutic utility of insulin in diabetes,

8.      Challenges and status of oral insulin therapy

9.      New perspective: the synthesis and physiology of sex steroids in pancreatic β-cells

9.1. Evidence of local islet steroidogenesis

9.2. Sex Steroids play roles in β cell function and survival

10.    Alpha cell hormones

10.1.         Glucagon

10.2.         Physiological functions of glucagon

10.2.1.  Effects of glucagon on the carbohydrates

10.2.2.   Effects of glucagon on the fat

10.2.3.   Glucagon has a proteolytic effect on protein

10.2.4.  Novel view of glucagon on brain

10.2.5.    Other functions

10.3.         Regulation of glucagon secretion

11.  Insulin and Glucagon Degradation

12.  Somatostatin

12.1.         Physiological functions of somatostatin: As endocrine/ paracrine hormone  

12.2.            Physiological functions of somatostatin: As neurohormone 

12.3.         As neuromodulator peptide/ neurotransmitter

12.4.         As gastrointestinal local hormone

13.  Pancreatic polypeptide hormone (PP)

13.1.        PP Sources

13.2.        PP receptors

13.3.        Physiological roles of Pancreatic polypeptide hormone

13.4.        PP Regulating factors

14.  A glance, pancreatic progenitor/ stem cells:  Beta cell’s self-renewal and promising strategy for diabetes

15.  The role of pancreatic stem cells on type-1 and type-2 diabetes.

16.  Conclusion

References list

 

 

Chapter 9

 

REGULATION OF MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS

1.      Introduction

2.      Gonad hormones & male reproduction

2.1. Testes Structure

2.2.  External location of tests

2.3.  Puberty

2.4.  Physiological functions of the testicles

2.4.1.        Seminiferous tubules

2.4.1.1.   Sex cells (spermatogonia & spermatogenesis)

2.4.1.2.    Spermiogenesis & Spermiogenesis 

2.4.1.3.   Somatic cells of the testis (Functions of Sertoli cells & peritubular)

2.4.2.        Endocrine cells of the testis (Interstitial tissue)

2.4.2.1.   Endocrine Leydig cells

2.4.3.        Characteristics of androgens

2.4.4.        Sexual and reproductive functions of androgens

2.4.5.        Anabolic functions of androgens

2.4.6.        Recent Roles of androgens in female

2.4.7.        Regulation of testicular function

2.4.7.1.   Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Seminiferous tubule axis

2.4.7.2.   Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Leydig cell axis

3.       Gonad hormones & female reproduction

3.1. Ovaries: Tissue zones of the ovaries

3.2.  Puberty in females

3.3. Ovary Functions

3.3.1.    Exocrine function

3.3.2.    Endocrine function

3.3.3.    Main female sex hormones and sources

3.4.  Role of the endometrium

3.5.  Regulation of ovarian function

3.6.  Phases of the ovarian cycle

3.6.1.    Pre-ovulatory phase (Follicular phase)

3.6.2.    Ovulation phase

3.6.3.    Post-ovulatory phase

3.6.4.    Corpus luteum phase (luteal phase)

3.6.5.    Corpus albicans

3.6.6.    Additional Notes on menstruation

3.7.  Regulation of the ovulatory cycle

3.8.  Summation reasons for corpus luteum degradation and reduced progesterone

3.9.  Functions of the ovarian hormones after puberty

3.9.1.    Comprehensive functions of estrogens

3.9.2.    Functions of Progesterone

3.9.3.     Progesterone as novel attractive treatment

3.10.               Extra regulating roles of inhibin, activin and follistatin on the gonads

3.11.                  Update on Minipuberty 

3.12.                  Updates in gametogenesis

3.12.1. Update in spermatogenesis: Quantitative and qualitative

3.12.2. Emerging concept of oogenesis

3.13.                  Physiology of Menopause and Andropause

3.14.                  Stem cells & bi-potential progenitor structure genital ridge.

3.15.                  Conclusion

References list

 

 

 

Chapter 10

 

ADIPOSE TISSUE AS AN ENDOCRINE ORGAN

AND LOCAL HORMONES

 

1.       Introduction

2.       Adipose tissue as an endocrine tissue

3.       Adipose tissue hormones (adipokines)

3.1. Leptin, adiponectin, visfatin, resistin

3.2.  Other adipokines (Apelin, chemerin, adipsin, kisspeptin)

4.       Functions of Adipokines

4.1.  Regulatory role of adipokines in energy homeostasis

4.2.  Adipokines role in appetite

4.3.  Adipose Tissues as part of the immune system: Role of leptin

4.4.   Role of Adipokines as a part of Circadian clocks

4.5.   Effect of Adipokines on neuroendocrine functions

4.6.   Adipokines and the hypothalamus releasing and pituitary hormones

4.7.   Effects of adipokines on reproduction

4.8.  Adipokines participate in hematopoiesis

4.9.  Adipokines influence bone turnover

4.10.          Novel adipocytokines: pathogenesis and treatment and as biomarkers

5.       Brief on Adipose tissue’s stem cells as new medical techniques

6.       A glance: examples of local hormones

6.1.   Prostaglandins

6.2. Gastrointestinal mucosa hormones

6.2.1.         Gastrin

6.2.2.        Ghrelin

6.2.3.        Secretin

6.2.4.        Cholecystokinin

6.2.5.        Digestion-inhibiting hormones

6.2.5.1.   Kidney as a secondary source of hormones

6.2.5.2.    Vitamin D is a steroid hormone

6.2.5.3.   Erythropoiesis-stimulating factor

6.2.6.          Renin

6.2.7.        Thymus gland

6.2.7.1.   Thymosin

6.2.7.2.   thymopoietin

6.2.8.        Ovaries and testes as local hormones

6.2.9.         Placenta

7.       Conclusion

     References list

 

 

O autorze

Dr. Ebtesam Abdullah Al-Suhaimi is a Professor at Biology Department, College of Science, at Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University (IAU) and the Dean of the IAU's Institute for Research and Medical Consultations (IRMC). Dr. Al-Suhaimi has more than two decades of research excellence in endocrinology, physiology, immunology, animal biology, and behavior sciences. With an advanced degree in physiology and a doctorate in endocrinology, Professor Al-Suhaimi authored more than 50 peer-reviewed articles dedicated to the human and animal endocrine systems. In addition, Dr. Al-Suhaimi co-authored several endocrinology books and chapters. Her book titled "Endocrine Physiology" in Arabic is taught in many educational organizations throughout Saudi Arabia. Professor Ebtesam is an active mentor and engaged supervisor of all graduate students at the IAU and IRMC. She is also a highly respected life scientist who served IAU as a Vice Dean for Scientific Research from 2009 till 2018, promoting organizational research cooperation between fundamental and applied research groups and teams. Professor Ebtesam is a member of the Endocrine Society, Saudi Biological Society, and The Saudi Society of Endocrinology and Metabolism and serves the greater scientific community as an Editorial Member and Reviewer of several peer-reviewed journals.