Ecological Methods: With Particular Reference to the Study of Insect Populations

ISBN-13: 9789400958111 / Angielski / Miękka / 2011 / 524 str.

T. R. Southwood; T. R. Southwood

Opis

1.1 Population estimates Population estimates can be classified into a number of different types; Such estimates are given by nearest neighbour and related techniques (Chapter 2), marking and recapture (Chapter 3), by sampling a known fraction of the habitat (Chapter 4-6) and by removal sampling and random walk techniques (Chapter 7).

Spis treści

1 Introduction to the study of animal populations.- 1.1 POPULATION ESTIMATES.- 1.1.1 Absolute and related estimates.- Absolute population.- Population intensity.- Basic population.- 1.1.2 Relative estimates.- 1.1.3 Population indices.- 1.2 ERRORS AND CONFIDENCE.- 2 The sampling programme and the measurement and description of dispersion.- 2.1 PRELIMINARY SAMPLING.- 2.1.1 Planning and field work.- 2.1.2 Statistical aspects.- The normal distribution and transformations.- Taylor’s power law.- Choosing the transformation.- Checking the adequacy of the transformation.- The use of probability paper.- Analysis of variance.- 2.2 THE SAMPLING PROGRAMME.- 2.2.1 The number of samples per habitat unit.- Subdivision of the habitat.- The number of samples per subdivision.- 2.2.2 The sampling unit, its selection, size and shape.- 2.2.3 The number of samples.- 2.2.4 The pattern of sampling.- 2.2.5 The timing of sampling.- 2.3 DISPERSION page.- 2.3.1 Mathematical distributions that serve as models.- Binomial family.- Calculating k of the negative binomial.- Testing the fit of the negative binomial.- Calculating a common k.- Logarthmic and other contagious models.- Implications of the distribution models and of changes in the type of distribution.- Comparison of aggregation indices.- 2.3.2 Biological interpretation of dispersion parameters.- Index of dispersion — the departure of the distribution from randomness.- ‘k’ of the negative binomial — an index of aggregation in the population.- ‘b’ of Taylor’s power law—an index of aggregation for the species.- Lloyd’s mean crowding and Iwao’s patchiness regression — indices for the population and species.- Iwao’s ? -index — a measure of colony area.- Breder’s equations — a measure of the cohesion of aggregations.- Deevey’s coefficient of crowding.- 2.3.3 Nearest neighbour and related techniques — measures of population size or of the departure from randomness of the distribution.- Nearest neighbour methods.- Closest individual or distance method.- 2.4 SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING.- 2.5 PRESENCE OR ABSENCE SAMPLING.- 2.6 SAMPLING A FAUNA.- 2.7 BIOLOGICAL AND OTHER QUALITATIVE ASPECTS OF SAMPLING.- 3 Absolute population estimates using marking techniques.- 3.1 METHODS OF MARKING ANIMALS.- 3.1.1 Group marking methods.- Paints and solutions of dyes.- Materials.- Application.- Dyes and fluorescent substances in powder form.- Labels.- Mutilation.- Marking internally by injection page.- Marking by feeding with dyes.- Genes, mutant and normal.- Rare elements.- Radioactive isotopes.- Labels.- Incorporation in tissues.- Detection.- Autoradiographic discrimination between 32P and 35S marked insects.- 3.1.2 Individual marking methods.- 3.1.3 Handling techniques.- 3.1.4 Release.- 3.2 CAPTURE-RECAPTURE METHODS OF ESTIMATING POPULATION PARAMETERS.- 3.2.1 Lincoln Index type methods.- Assumptions.- The validity of the assumptions.- Marking has no effect.- Equal catchability.- Methods of calculation.- The Lincoln Index.- Other single mark methods.- Review of methods for a series of marking occasions.- Choice of method for a series of marking occasions.- The Fisher—Ford method.- Bailey’s triple-catch method.- The Jolly—Seber stochastic method.- Manly & Paris method.- 3.2.2 Frequency of capture methods (Sehnabel census).- 3.2.3 Craig’s method: constant probability of capture.- 3.2.4 Change in ratio methods (Kelker’s selective removal).- 4 Absolute population estimates by sampling a unit of habitat —air, plants, plant products and vertebrate hosts.- 4.1 SAMPLING FROM THE AIR.- 4.1.1 Sampling apparatus.- Exposed cone type of suction trap.- Enclosed cone types of suction trap.- Rotary and other traps.- Comparison and efficiencies of the different types of suction traps.- 4.1.2 Conversion of catch to aerial density page.- 4.1.3 Conversion of density to total aerial population.- 4.2 SAMPLING FROM PLANTS.- 4.2.1 Assessing the plant.- 4.2.2 Determining the numbers of insects.- Direct counting.- The separation of exposed small animals from the foliage on which they are living.- Knockdown — by chemicals, jarring and heat.- Brushing.- Washing.- Imprinting.- The expulsion of animals from tall vegetation.- Jarring or beating.- Chemical knockdown.- Collection of naturally descending animals.- The extraction of animals from herbage and debris.- Suction apparatus.- Cylinder or covering method.- Tents for sampling strongly phototactic animals.- Extraction by heat, drying and/or flotation.- Methods for animals in plant tissues.- Dissection.- Bleaching and/or selective staining.- X-rays.- Methods based on the different mass of the whole and the infested material.- A ural detection.- 4.2.3 Special sampling problems with animals in plant material.- The marking of turf samples.- The sampling of bulk grain.- The sampling of bark.- 4.3 SAMPLING FROM VERTEBRATE HOSTS.- 4.3.1 Sampling from living hosts.- Searching.- Combing.- Fumigation.- 4.3.2 Sampling from dead hosts.- Searching and combing.- Fumigation.- Dissolving.- Clearing.- Washing.- 4.3.3 Sampling from vertebrate ‘homes’.- 5 Absolute population estimates by sampling a unit of habitat—soil and litter page.- 5.1 SAMPLING.- 5.2 MECHANICAL METHODS OF EXTRACTION.- 5.2.1 Dry sieving.- 5.2.2 Soil washing (or wet sieving).- 5.2.3 Soil washing and flotation.- 5.2.4 Flotation.- 5.2.5 The separation of plant and animal matter by differential wetting.- 5.2.6 Centrifugation.- 5.2.7 Sedimentation.- 5.2.8 Elutriation.- 5.2.9 Sectioning.- 5.3 BEHAVIOURAL OR DYNAMIC METHODS.- 5.3.1 Dry extractors.- Large Berlese funnel.- Horizon tal extractor.- High gradient (Multiple canister) extractor.- Kempson bowl extractor.- 5.3.2 Wet extractors.- Baermann funnel.- Hot water extractors.- Sand extractors.- Cold water extractor.- Mistifier.- 5.3.3 Chemical extraction.- 5.3.4 Electrical extraction.- 5.4 SUMMARY OF THE APPLICABILITY OF THE METHODS.- 6 Absolute population estimates by sampling a unit of habitat — freshwater habitats.- 6.1 OPEN WATER.- Nets.- Pumps and baling.- The Clarke—Bumpus plankton sampler.- The Belleville mosquito sampler.- 6.2 VEGETATION.- Sampling cylinder for floating vegetation.- Wisconsin trap.- The Gerking sampler.- McCauley’s samplers.- Sampling cages.- 6.3 BOTTOM FAUNA page.- The ‘Planting’ of removable portions of the substrate.- Lifting stones.- Cylinders and boxes for delimiting an area.- Movable nets — drags.- Dredges and other devices for removing portions of the substrate.- Air-lift and suction devices.- 7 Relative methods of population measurement and the derivation of absolute estimates.- 7.1 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SIZE OF RELATIVE ESTIMATES.- 7.1.1 The ‘phase’ of the animal.- 7.1.2 The activity of the animal.- 7.1.3 Variation in the responsiveness of different sexes and species to trap stimuli.- 7.1.4 The efficiency of the trap or searching method.- 7.2 THE USES OF RELATIVE METHODS.- 7.2.1 Measures of the availability.- 7.2.2 Indices of absolute population.- 7.2.3 Estimates of absolute population.- ‘Calibration’ by comparison with absolute estimates.- Correcting the catch to allow for variations in trap efficiency.- Line transects.- Removal trapping or collecting.- 7.2.4 Collecting.- 7.3 RELATIVE METHODS-CATCH PER UNIT EFFORT.- 7.3.1 Visual observation.- 7.3.2 Population estimates from line transects.- 7.3.3 Observation by Radar.- 7.3.4 Aural detection.- 7.3.5 Exposure by plough.- 7.3.6 Collecting with a net or similar device.- 7.4 RELATIVE METHODS—TRAPPING.- 7.4.1 Interception traps.- Air—flight traps.- Water—aquatic traps.- Land—pitfall and other traps.- 7.4.2 Flight traps combining interception and attraction.- Sticky traps.- Water traps.- 7.4.3 Light and other visual traps.- Mode of action and limitations.- The effects of trap design on catch page.- Techniques and types of trap.- The Rothamsted trap.- The Robinson trap.- The Pennsylvanian and Texas traps.- The New Jersey trap.- The Haufe—Burgess visual trap.- The Manitoba horse fly trap.- Aquatic light traps.- 7.4.4 Traps that attract the animal by some natural stimulus or a substitute.- Shelter traps.- Trap host plants.- The use of vertebrate hosts or substitutes as bait.- Moving baits.- Stationary baits.- Bait traps.- Traps.- Baits or lures.- Sound traps.- 8 Estimates based on products and effects of insects.- 8.1 PRODUCTS.- 8.1.1 Exuviae.- 8.1.2 Frass.- Identification.- The rate of frass production.- Efficiency of collection.- 8.1.3 Other products.- 8.2 EFFECTS.- 8.2.1 Effects due to an individual insect.- 8.2.2 General effects —damage.- Criteria.- Economic damage.- Loss of yield.- The amount of plant consumed.- Determining the relationship between damage and insect populations.- 9 Observational and experimental methods for the estimation of natality, mortality and dispersal.- 9.1 NATALITY.- 9.1.1 Fertility.- 9.1.2 Numbers entering a stage page.- 9.1.3 The birth-rate from mark and recapture data.- 9.2 MORTALITY.- 9.2.1 Total.- 9.2.2 The death-rate from mark and recapture data.- 9.2.3 Climatic factors.- 9.2.4 Biotic factors.- Examination of the prey (host).- Examination of the predator.- Serological methods.- Labelled prey.- Predator or parasite exclusion techniques.- Mechanical or other barriers.- Elimination of predator or parasite.- Direct observation.- Experimental assessment of natural enemies.- Death rate of prey/prey density.- Death rate of prey/predator density.- Predator dispersion/prey dispresion.- Fecundity, developmental and survival rates of predators/prey density.- The role of other prey.- Changes during development of the predator.- Changes due to other animals.- Climatic and similar effects.- 9.3 DISPERSAL.- 9.3.1 Laboratory assessments.- 9.3.2 The use of marked or introduced animals.- The measurement and description of dispersal.- The detection of heterogeneity, with respect to the rate of dispersal, in the individuals of the population.- The numbers at various distances from the release point.- The fall-off of density with distance.- The mean-distance travelled and the rate of dispersal.- The number of marked animals that have left an area.- The rate of population interchange between two areas.- The description of population displacement in relation to its dispersion.- The measurement and description of home range and territory.- Minimum area method.- The matrix index.- 9.3.3 Direct field measurements page.- The elimination of emigration.- The use of quadrat counts of unmarked individuals.- The rate of colonization of a new habitat.- The direction of migration.- 10 The construction, description and analysis of age-specific life-tables.- 10.1 TYPES OF LIFE-TABLE AND THE BUDGET.- 10.2 THE CONSTRUCTION OF A BUDGET.- 10.2.1 Graphical method.- 10.2.2 Richards & Waloff’s first method.- 10.2.3 Manly’s method.- 10.2.4 Birley’s method.- 10.2.5 Ruesink’s method.- 10.2.6 Dempster’s method.- 10.2.7 Richards & Waloff’s second method.- 10.2.8 Kiritani, Nakasuji & Manly’s method.- 10.3 THE DESCRIPTION OF BUDGETS AND LIFE-TABLES.- 10.3.1 Survivorship curves.- 10.3.2 The life-table and life expectancy.- 10.3.3 Life and fertility tables and the net reproductive rate.- 10.3.4 Population growth rates.- 10.3.5 The calculation of r.- 10.4 THE ANALYSIS OF LIFE-TABLE DATA.- 10.4.1 The comparison of mortality factors within a generation.- Apparent mortality.- Real mortality.- Indispensible mortality.- Mortality—survivor ratio.- 10.4.2 The simple statistical relationship of population size to a factor.- 10.4.3 Survival and life budget analysis.- Varley & Gradwell’s method.- The investigation of the roles of different factors in single-generation budgets.- 11 Age-grouping of insects, time-specific life-tables and predictive population models.- 11.1 AGE-GROUPING OF INSECTS.- 11.1.1 Cuticular bands.- 11.1.2 Sclerotization and colour changes in the cuticle and wings.- 11.1.3 Developmental changes in the male genitalia.- 11.1.4 Changes in the internal non-reproductive organs.- 11.1.5 The condition of the ovaries and associated structures.- 11.1.6 Indices of copulation page.- 11.1.7 Changes in weight.- 11.1.8 ‘Wear and tear’.- 11.2 TIME-SPECIFIC LIFE TABLE AND SURVIVAL RATES.- 11.3 PREDICTIVE POPULATION MODELS.- 11.3.1 Physiological time.- 11.3.2 Life-table parameters.- 11.3.3 Recruitment in the field.- 11.3.4 Empirical models.- 11.3.5 Intrinsic rate models and variable life tables.- 11.3.6 Lewis-Leslie matrices.- 12 Systems analysis and modelling in ecology.- 12.1 TYPES OF SYSTEMS MODEL.- 12.1.1 Dioristic models.- 12.1.2 Component models.- 12.1.3 Strategic models.- Deductive and mixed models.- Inductive models.- 12.1.4 Management models.- Population management models.- Ecosystem (biome) models.- 12.1.5 Statistical models.- 12.2 ANALYSIS AND SIMULATION IN MODELS.- 12.3 DETERMINISTIC AND STOCHASTIC MODELS.- 12.4 DIFFERENCE AND DIFFERENTIAL MODELS.- 13 Diversity, species packing and habitat description.- 13.1 DIVERSITY.- 13.1.1 Description of ? and ? diversity.- Models for the S:N relationship.- Geometric series.- Logarithmic (or log) series.- Log normal distribution.- Mac Arthur’s broken stick.- Non-parametric indices.- Shannon— Weaver function.- Simpson—Yule index (D).- Berger—Parker Dominance index.- Which model or index?.- Procedure.- 13.1.2 Description of ?-diversity.- Indices.- The sorting of indices page.- Trellis diagram.- Dendrogram.- Cluster analysis.- Multivariate methods.- Gradient description.- 13.2 SPECIES PACKING.- 13.2.1 Measurement of interspecific association.- The departure of the distribution of presence or absence from independence.- The contingency table.- Coefficients of association.- Proportion of individuals occuring together.- 13.2.2 Measurement of resource utilization.- Species packing in terms of mean and width of resource utilization specturm (‘d/w’ method).- Species packing in terms of proportional utilization of different resource states (‘pi method’).- 13.2.3 Niche size and competition coefficients.- 13.3 HABITATS.- 13.3.1 Qualitative.- 13.3.2 Quantitative.- 14 The estimation of productivity and the construction of energy budgets.- 14.1 ESTIMATION OF STANDING CROP.- 14.1.1 Measurement of biomass.- 14.1.2 Determination of caloric value.- 14.2 ESTIMATION OF ENERGY FLOW.- 14.2.1 The measurement of production.- 14.2.2 The measurement of feeding and assimilation.- The quality of the food eaten.- Feeding and assimilation rates.- Radiotracer techniques.- Gravimetric techniques.- Indicator methods.- 14.2.3 The measurement of the energy loss due to respiration and metabolic processes.- Calorimetric.- The exchange of respiratory gases.- The energy equivalents of oxygen and carbon dioxide.- The respiratory rate.- Gas analysis.- 14.3 THE ENERGY BUDGET, EFFICIENCIES AND TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS page.- 14.3.1 The energy budget of a population (or trophic level).- 14.3.2 Energy transfer across trophic links.- 14.4 ASSESSMENT OF ENERGY AND TIME COST STRATEGIES.- Author Index.- General Index.