Computed Tomography

ISBN-13: 9781510646872 / Twarda / 2022 / 786 str.

Jiang Hsieh

Spis treści

• Preface
• Nomenclature and Abbreviations
• 1 Introduction
• 1.1 Conventional X-ray Tomography
• 1.2 History of Computed Tomography
• 1.3 Different Generations of CT Scanners
• 1.4 Problems
• References
• 2 Preliminaries
• 2.1 Mathematics Fundamentals
• 2.1.1 Fourier transform and convolution
• 2.1.2 Random variables
• 2.1.3 Linear algebra
• 2.2 Fundamentals of X-ray Physics
• 2.2.1 Production of x rays
• 2.2.2 Interaction of x rays with matter
• 2.3 Measurement of Line Integrals and Data Conditioning
• 2.4 Sampling Geometry and Sinogram
• 2.5 Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and Deep Learning
• 2.5.1 Overview of AI development
• 2.5.2 Neural network structure
• 2.5.3 Neural network training
• 2.5.4 Recent advances in DL
• 2.6 Problems
• References
• 3 Image Reconstruction
• 3.1 Introduction
• 3.2 Intuitive Approach to Image Reconstruction
• 3.3 The Fourier Slice Theorem
• 3.4 The Filtered Backprojection Algorithm
• 3.4.1 Derivation of the filtered back-projection formula
• 3.4.2 Computer implementation
• 3.4.3 Targeted reconstruction
• 3.5 Fan-Beam Reconstruction
• 3.5.1 Reconstruction formula for equiangular sampling
• 3.5.2 Reconstruction formula for equally spaced sampling
• 3.5.3 Fan-beam to parallel-beam rebinning
• 3.6 Iterative Reconstruction
• 3.6.1 Mathematics verses reality
• 3.6.2 The general approach to iterative reconstruction
• 3.6.3 Algebraic reconstruction
• 3.6.4 System modeling process
• 3.6.5 Optimization algorithms
• 3.6.6 Image quality benefit of model-based iterative reconstruction
• 3.6.7 Reconstruction speedup
• 3.7 Deep Learning–based Reconstruction
• 3.7.1 General approach
• 3.7.2 Training dataset selection
• 3.7.3 Determination of the training dataset size
• 3.7.4 Examples of DL-based reconstruction
• 3.8 Problems
• Reference
• 4 Image Presentation
• 4.1 CT Image Display
• 4.2 Volume Visualization
• 4.2.1 Multiplanar reformation
• 4.2.2 MIP, minMIP, and volume rendering
• 4.2.3 Surface rendering
• 4.3 Impact of Visualization Tools
• 4.4 Volume Visualization
• 4.4.1 Clinical utility
• 4.4.2 Hardware technologies
• 4.4.3 File format
• 4.4.4 Typical 3D printing workflow
• 4.5 Problems
• References
• 5 Key Performance Parameters of the CT Scanner
• 5.1 High-Contrast Spatial Resolution
• 5.1.1 In-plane resolution
• 5.1.2 Slice sensitivity profile
• 5.2 Low-Contrast Resolution
• 5.2.1 Factors impacting low-contrast detectability
• 5.2.2 LCD phantoms
• 5.2.3 LCD evaluation methodologies
• 5.3 Temporal Resolution
• 5.4 CT Number Accuracy and Noise
• 5.5 Impact of Iterative Reconstruction on Performance Measurement
• 5.5.1 Performance-metric-based approach
• 5.5.2 Task-based approach
• 5.5.3 Surrogate task with clinical data
• 5.5.4 Surrogate task with nonclinical data
• 5.6 Performance of the Scanogram
• 5.7 Problems
• References
• 6 Major Components of the CT Scanner
• 6.1 System Overview
• 6.2 The X-ray Tube and High-Voltage Generator
• 6.3 The X-ray Detector and Data-Acquisition Electronics
• 6.3.1 Direct-conversion gas detector
• 6.3.2 Indirect-conversion solid-state detector
• 6.3.3 Direct-conversion semiconductor detector
• 6.3.4 General performance parameters
• 6.3.5 Specific performance parameters
• 6.4 The Gantry and Slip Ring
• 6.5 Collimation and Filtration
• 6.6 The Reconstruction Engine
• 6.7 The Patient Table
• 6.8 Problems
• References
• 7 Image Artifacts: Appearances, Causes, and Corrections
• 7.1 What Is an Image Artifact?
• 7.2 Different Appearances of Image Artifacts
• 7.3 Artifacts Related to System Design
• 7.3.1 Aliasing
• 7.3.2 Partial volume
• 7.3.3 Scatter
• 7.3.4 Noise-induced streaks
• 7.4 Artifacts Related to X-ray Tubes
• 7.4.1 Off-focal radiation
• 7.4.2 Tube arcing
• 7.4.3 Tube rotor wobble
• 7.5 Detector-Induced Artifacts
• 7.5.1 Offset, gain, nonlinearity, and radiation damage
• 7.5.2 Primary speed and afterglow
• 7.5.3 Detector response uniformity
• 7.6 Patient-Induced Artifacts
• 7.6.1 Patient motion
• 7.6.2 Beam hardening
• 7.6.3 Metal and high-density object artifacts
• 7.6.4 Incomplete projections
• 7.7 Operator-Induced Artifacts
• 7.8 Problems
• References
• 8 Computer Simulation and Analysis
• 8.1 What Is Computer Simulation?
• 8.2 Simulation Overview
• 8.3 Simulation of Optics
• 8.4 Simulation of Physics-Related Performance
• 8.5 Simulation of a Clinical Study
• 8.6 Problems
• References
• 9 Helical or Spiral CT
• 9.1 Introduction
• 9.1.1 Clinical needs
• 9.1.2 Enabling technologies
• 9.2 Terminology and Reconstruction
• 9.2.1 Helical pitch
• 9.2.2 Basic reconstruction approaches
• 9.3 Slice Sensitivity Profile and Noise
• 9.4 Helically Related Image Artifacts
• 9.4.1 High-pitch helical artifacts
• 9.4.2 Noise-induced artifacts
• 9.4.3 System-misalignment-induced artifacts
• 9.4.4 Helical artifacts caused by object slope
• 9.5 Problems
• References
• 10 Multislice CT
• 10.1 The Need for Multislice CT
• 10.2 Detector Configurations of Multislice CT
• 10.3 Nonhelical Mode of Reconstruction
• 10.4 Multislice Helical Reconstruction
• 10.4.1 2D backprojection algorithm
• 10.4.2 Reconstruction algorithms with 3D backprojection
• 10.4.3 Over-beaming (or over-scanning) compensation
• 10.5 Multislice Artifacts
• 10.5.1 General description
• 10.5.2 Multislice CT cone-beam effects
• 10.5.3 Interpolation-related image artifacts
• 10.5.4 Noise-induced multislice artifacts
• 10.5.5 Tilt artifacts in multislice helical CT
• 10.5.6 Distortion in step-and-shoot mode SSP
• 10.5.7 Artifacts due to geometric inaccuracy
• 10.5.8 Comparison of multislice and single-slice helical CT
• 10.6 Problems
• References
• 11 X-ray Radiation and Dose-Reduction Techniques
• 11.1 Biological Effects of X-ray Radiation
• 11.2 Measurement of X-ray Dose
• 11.2.1 Terminology and the measurement standard
• 11.2.2 Other measurement units and methods
• 11.2.3 Issues with the current CTDI
• 11.3 Methodologies for Dose Reduction
• 11.3.1 Tube-current modulation
• 11.3.2 Umbra-penumbra and overbeam issues
• 11.3.3 Physiological gating
• 11.3.4 Organ-specific dose reduction
• 11.3.5 Protocol optimization and impact of the operator
• 11.3.6 Postprocessing techniques
• 11.3.7 Advanced reconstruction
• 11.4 Problems
• References
• 12 Dual-Energy and Spectral CT
• 12.1 Intuitive Explanation
• 12.1.1 Material differentiation
• 12.1.2 Material representation
• 12.2 Theory of Basis Material Decomposition
• 12.2.1 Basis material
• 12.2.2 Projection-space material decomposition (MD)
• 12.2.3 Image-space material decomposition
• 12.2.4 Multimaterial identification and quantification
• 12.2.5 Noise
• 12.3 Generation of Derivative Images
• 12.3.1 Monochromatic image
• 12.3.2 Basis material transformation
• 12.3.3 Electron density image
• 12.3.4 Effective atomic number image
• 12.4 Data Acquisition
• 12.4.1 Energy-integrating systems
• 12.4.2 Photon-counting system
• 12.5 Clinical Applications
• 12.6 Problems
• References
• 13 Advanced CT Applications
• 13.1 Introduction
• 13.2 Cardiac Imaging
• 13.2.1 Coronary calcium scan
• 13.2.2 Coronary artery imaging
• 13.2.3 Cardiac function
• 13.3 Interventional Procedures
• 13.4 Stroke: CT Perfusion and Multiphase CTA
• 13.4.1 Perfusion
• 13.4.2 Multiphase CTA
• 13.5 Screening and Quantitative CT
• 13.5.1 Lung cancer screening
• 13.5.2 Quantitative CT
• 13.5.3 CT colonography
• 13.6 Impact of Artificial Intelligence
• 13.7 Problems
• References
• Glossary
• Index