Biology of Desert Invertebrates

ISBN-13: 9783642857966 / Angielski / Miękka / 2012 / 314 str.

C. S. Crawford

Opis

What little we know of the biology of desert invertebrates stems largely from inferences based on intensive and repeated observations. Such informa tion is not gained easily, since despite the actual abundance of these animals, relatively few of them are ever seen. In fact, except for species impacting on the well-being of human populations, historically most have been ignored by scholars in the western world. Indeed, it was ancient Egypt, with its reverence for the symbolism of the scarab, that probably provided us with the clearest early record of prominent desert types. A more modest resurgence of the story had to wait until the arrival of the present century. To be sure, some of the more obvious species had by then been elevated by European collectors to the level of drawing-room curios ities, and expeditions had returned large numbers to museums. But by 1900 the task of describing desert species and relationships among them was still in its infancy; and as for careful natural history studies, they too were just coming into their own."

Spis treści

1 Deserts and Desert Invertebrates.- 1 Perspectives.- A. Evolution and Present Distribution of Deserts.- I. Physical Causes of Deserts.- 1. The Role of Climate.- 2. Classification of Present Deserts Based on Climate.- a. Subtropical Deserts.- b. Continental Interior Deserts.- c. Rain Shadow Deserts.- d. Cool Coastal Deserts.- e. Polar Deserts.- 3. Desertification.- a. Effects of Vegetation Removal.- b. Effects of Withholding Fire.- II. Continental Drift, Paleoclimates, and Desert Evolution.- 1. Gondwanaland and Pangaea.- 2. Mesozoic Events and Aridity.- 3. Desert Formation in the Tertiary.- 4. Quaternary Environments and Modern Deserts.- B. Physical Environment of Deserts.- I. Climate.- 1. Radiant Energy.- 2. Wind.- 3. Water.- II. Surfaces and Soils: Their Properties and Microclimates.- C. Desert Ecosystems: Producers.- I. Introduction.- II. Role of Producers Relative to Arid-Climate Patterns.- 1. Production in Desert Plants.- 2. Production Relative to Major Physical and Climatic Factors.- III. Role of Producers Relative to Invertebrate Habitats and Feeding Patterns.- 1. Trees and Shrubs.- 2. Annuals.- 3. Cryptogams.- D. Desert Ecosystems: Consumers.- I. Introduction.- II. Production, Life History, and Climate.- III. Influence of Consumers on Primary Production.- 2 The Array of Desert Invertebrates.- A. Protozoans.- B. Nematodes.- C. Annelids.- D. Gastropod Mollusks.- E. Isopods and Other Crustaceans.- F. Solifugid Arachnids.- G. Uropygid Arachnids.- H. Pseudoscorpions.- I. Scorpions.- J. Opilionid Arachnids.- K. Spiders.- L. Mites.- M. Millipedes.- N. Centipedes.- O. Entognath Hexapods and Apterygote Insects.- P. Cockroaches and Lesser Orthopteroid Insects.- Q. Locusts and Grasshoppers.- R. Termites.- S. Hemipteroid Insects.- T. Neuropterans.- U. Beetles.- V. Butterflies and Moths.- W. Flies.- X. Bees and Wasps.- Y. Ants.- Z. Fleas.- Summary Comments: Part 1.- 2 Adaptations to Xeric Environments.- 3 The Use of Light and Timing of Activity.- A. Introduction.- I. Photoperiod.- II. Light Intensity and Wavelength.- B. Simple Light Responses and Diel Periodicities of Desert Invertebrates.- I. Mollusks.- II. Isopods.- III. Arachnids.- IV. Myriapods.- V. Insects.- VI. Assessment of Diel Periodicities.- C. Seasonal Periodicities of Desert Invertebrates.- 4 Water Relations: Short-Term Water Balance.- A. Introduction.- B. Water Loss.- C. Water Uptake.- D. Patterns of Desiccation Resistance.- 5 Seasonal Water Relations: Long-Term Water Balance.- A. Introduction.- B. Soil-Associated Invertebrates.- C. Desert Locusts.- D. Summary Comments.- 6 Temperature Relations.- A. Introduction.- B. Thermal Budgets Describing Thermal Balance.- C. Morphological Adaptations.- I. Dead Air Spaces.- II. Limb Length.- III. Color.- IV. Integumental Properties Other than Color.- D. Behavioral and Physiological Adaptations.- I. Behavioral Thermoregulation.- 1. Evaporative Cooling by Behavioral Means.- 2. Microhabitat Selection.- II. Physiological Aspects of Thermal Relations.- 1. Acclimation to High Temperatures.- 2. Metabolic Homeostasis in Changing Thermal Environments.- 3. Flying Insects: A Special Case.- E. Adaptations to Cold.- I. General Responses to Freezing Temperatures.- II. Comparative Responses to Freezing Temperatures in Desert Invertebrates.- III. Other Metabolic Responses to Cold.- F. Summary Comments.- 7 Energetics.- A. Introduction.- B. Assimilation.- C. Respiration.- D. Production.- Summary Comments: Part 2.- 3 Life-History Patterns.- 8 Short Lives: Multivoltine Species.- A. Introduction.- B. Reproductive Patterns.- C. Patterns of Development and Resource Utilization.- 9 Short Lives: Univoltine Species.- A. Introduction.- B. Reproductive Patterns.- C. Developmental Patterns.- D. Patterns of Resource Utilization.- 10 Long Lives: Herbivores and Detritivores.- A. Introduction.- B. Reproductive Patterns.- C. Developmental Patterns.- I. Slow Growth and Its Consequences.- II. Interactions with Predators.- D. Detritus as a Resource.- 11 Long Lives: Carnivores.- A. Introduction.- B. Reproductive Patterns.- C. Developmental Patterns.- D. Patterns of Resource Utilization.- Summary Comments: Part 3.- 4 Invertebrate Communities: Composition and Dynamics.- Introduction: Use of the Community Concept.- 12 Soil and Litter Community: Nematodes and Microarthropods.- A. Introduction.- B. Distribution.- C. Community Roles.- I. Trophic Relationships.- II. Energetics.- 13 Soil and Litter Community: Social Arthropods.- A. Sociality in Desert Species: General Comments.- B. Ants.- I. Patterns of Distribution.- II. Community Roles.- C. Termites.- I. Patterns of Distribution.- II. Community Roles.- 14 Soil and Litter Community: Temporary Dwellers.- A. Comments on the Fauna.- B. Habitats and Their Temporary Residents.- I. Soil (Including Burrows).- 1. Distribution of Invertebrate Species.- 2. Morphological and Behavioral Adaptations of Soil-Associated Desert Arthropods.- 3. Adaptations of Soil-Associated Carnivorous Arthropods in Deserts.- II. Crevice-Type Habitats.- III. Soil Surface Including Litter.- C. Summary Comments.- 15 Temporary Vegetation Community: Emphasis on Herbivores.- A. Introductory Comments.- B. Consumer Array and Dietary Patterns.- I. Direct Consumers.- II. Pollinators.- III. Carnivores.- C. Characteristics of Plants as Resources for Invertebrate Consumers.- I. Plant Phenology.- II. Aspects of Photosynthesis.- D. Characteristics of Invertebrate Consumers.- I. Seasonal and Diel Feeding Patterns.- II. Patterns of Pollination.- III. Patterns of Behavior and Development.- E. Coevolution of Temporary Desert Vegetation and Its Herbivores.- 16 Perennial Shrub Community.- A. Introductory Comments.- B. Consumer Array and Dietary Patterns.- C. Characteristics of Plants as Resources for Invertebrate Consumers.- I. Plant Phenology.- II. Aspects of Photosynthesis.- D. Characteristics of Invertebrate Consumers.- I. Seasonal and Diel Feeding Patterns.- II. Patterns of Behavior and Development.- E. Coevolution of Perennial Desert Shrubs and Their Herbivores.- 17 The Invertebrate Community of Ephemeral Waters.- A. The Habitat.- B. The Invertebrate Fauna.- C. Reproduction and Development.- I. Reproductive Potential.- II. Embryonic Development and Survival.- III. Hatching.- IV. Posthatching Development and Survival.- D. Adaptation to Abiotic Stress Conditions.- E. Production, Competition, and Seasonal Colonization.- 5 Invertebrates in Desert Ecosystems: Summary Remarks.- A. Introduction.- B. The Temporal Dimension.- C. The Spatial Dimension.- D. Models of Invertebrate Activity in Desert Ecosystems.- E. Future Studies.- I. Adaptation.- II. Life-History Patterns.- III. Community Dynamics.- F. Final Comments.- References.