Arthropod Venoms

ISBN-13: 9783642455032 / Angielski / Miękka / 2012 / 977 str.

S. Bettini

Opis

Arthropod venoms have received much attention and have played an important role in folklore and medicine since ancient times. Scorpion envenomation, "tarant- ism," bee and wasp stings are among those subjects about which most has been speculated and written in the past. In the last 50 years or so, a great number of scientific papers have been devoted to arthropod venoms, but only a few volumes have been designed to collect this rapidly increasing material, and these are not recent. Of late, the chemistry and mode of action of several arthropod venoms have been thoroughly studied, and some of these substances will probably be used as pharmacological tools and also as therapeutic agents. The aim of the present volume is to collect in manual form new information as well as the old notions on arthropod venoms. Even though it was our intention to present a volume on arthropod venoms, and not on venomous arthropods, inevitably we were forced to include information on venom-producing organisms as well. We assumed, in fact, that those scientists for whom the present manual is primarily intended (biochemists, particularly com- parative biochemists, and pharmacologists) should be familiar with the biologic elements concerning the venom-producing species; which should show them how important it is to operate in close collaboration with biologists specialized in venomous arthropod systematics and biology.

Spis treści

1 Introduction to Venomous Arthropod Systematics.- A. Introduction.- I. What are Arthropoda?.- II. The Main Divisions of the “Type”.- III. The Chelicerata.- 1. Scorpionida.- 2. Uropygi or Thelyphonida.- 3. Pseudoscorpionida.- 4. Opiliones.- 5. Acarina.- 6. Araneae.- IV. The Crustacea.- V. The “Myriapoda”.- 1. Chilopoda.- 2. Diplopoda.- VI. The Hexapoda or Insecta.- 1. Blattodea and Dermaptera.- 2. Rhynchota and Anoplura.- 3. Aphaniptera.- 4. Coleoptera.- 5. Hymenoptera.- 6. Diptera.- 7. Lepidoptera.- VII. Some General Advices.- 1. How to Identify an Arthropod.- 2. How to Conserve an Arthropod.- 3. What to Expect from the Bibliography.- References.- 2 Venoms of Crustacea and Merostomata.- A. Introduction.- B. Crustaceans Suspected of Being Poisonous..- C. Toxicity of Crabs.- I. Crabs Containing Saxitoxin.- II. Toxicity of Lophozozymus pictor.- D. Biology of Poisonous Xanthid Crabs.- I. Zosimus aeneus.- 1. Description.- 2. Color in Life.- 3. Habitat and Distribution.- 4. Feeding Habits and Spawning Season.- II. Platypodia granulosa.- 1. Description.- 2. Color in Life.- 3. Habitat and Distribution.- III. Atergatis floridus.- 1. Description.- 2. Color in Life.- 3. Habitat and Distribution.- IV. Lophozozymus pictor.- 1. Description.- 2. Coloration.- 3. Distribution.- E. Chemistry of Toxins in Crabs.- I. Purification of Z. aeneus Toxin.- II. Chemical Properties of Z. aeneus Toxin.- III. Chemical Properties of Toxins from Other Crabs.- F. Pharmacology of Toxins in Crabs.- I. Z. aeneus Toxin.- 1. Poisoning Cases and Symptoms.- 2. Signs in Test Animals.- 3. Effects on Nerve Excitation.- II. The Toxin of L. pictor.- III. Toxin in Other Crabs.- G. Coconut Crab Poisoning.- I. Biology of Coconut Crab.- 1. Description.- 2. Color when Alive, Habitat, and Distribution.- II. Toxicity of the Coconut Crab.- H. Horseshoe-Crab Poisoning.- I. Biology of Horseshoe Crabs.- II. Toxicity of Horseshoe Crabs.- III. Clinical Characteristics.- I. Prevention and Treatment of Crab Poisoning.- References.- 3 Defensive Secretions of Millipeds.- A. Distribution, Structure, and Mode of Operation of the Glands.- B. Chemistry of the Secretions.- C. Biochemistry of the Secretions.- D. Defensive Effectiveness of the Glands.- E. Implications to Humans.- F. Other Defenses of Millipeds.- References.- 4 Secretions of Centipedes.- A. The Centipedes.- B. Glands and Secretions.- I. Defensive and Offensive Weapons of Centipedes.- II. Topography of the Exocrine Glands.- III. Histology of the Glands.- 1. The Forcipular Gland.- 2. Ventral and Coxal Glands of the Geophilomorphs.- IV. Secretions.- 1. Sticky Secretions.- 2. Luminescent Secretions.- 3. Smelling Secretions.- 4. Venom of the Forcipular Glands.- a) Effects of Bite on Humans.- b) Effects of Bite on Laboratory Animals.- c) Chemistry of the Venom.- References.- 5 Secretions of Opilionids, Whip Scorpions and Pseudoscorpions.- A. Order Opiliones.- B. Order Uropygi.- C. Order Pseudoscorpiones.- References.- 6 Review of the Spider Families, with Notes on the Lesser-Known Poisonous Forms.- A. Orthognatha = Theraphosomorphae = Mygalomorphae.- B. Labidognatha = Araneomorphae.- I. Haplogynae.- II. Entelegynae = Trionychae.- 1. Araneoidea.- a) Araneidae = Argiopidae.- b) Linyphiidae.- c) Theridiidae.- 2. Lycosoidea.- a) Agelenidae.- b) Argyronetidae.- c) Pisauridae.- d) Lycosidae.- e) Oxyopidae.- III. Entelegynae = Dionychae.- 1. Gnaphosidae (= Drassodidae = Drassidae).- 2. Clubionidae.- 3. Ctenidae.- 4. Eusparassidae (= Heteropodidae).- 5. Thomisidae.- 6. Salticidae.- IV. Cribellatae.- References.- 7 Venoms of Dipluridae.- A. Systematics and Distribution.- B. Biology and Venoms.- I. Introduction.- II. Notes on Atrax robustus.- III. Source of Venom for Experimentation.- 1. Maintenance of Spiders in the Laboratory.- 2. Collection of Venom and Venom Yields.- IV. Structure of the Venom Glands in Atrax robustus.- V. Toxicity of Venom in Various Animal Species.- 1. Atrax robustus Venom.- 2. Venom of Other Species of Atrax.- VI. Chemistry of Sydney Funnel-Web Spider (Atrax robustus) Venom.- VII. Pharmacopathologic Studies with Atrax robustus Venom.- 1. Intact Animal Experiments.- 2. Studies Upon Isolated Preparations.- 3. Investigation of Antidotes.- VIII. Immunologic Studies on Atrax Venom.- IX. Human Envenomation by Atrax robustus.- 1. General.- 2. Signs and Symptoms of Envenomation.- 3. Treatment of Victims.- 4. Prognosis.- X. Discussion.- References.- 8 Venoms of Theridiidae, Genus Latrodectus.- A. Systematics, Distribution and Biology of Species; Chemistry, Pharmacology and Mode of Action of Venom.- I. Systematics and Distribution of Species.- II. Biology.- 1. Habitat.- 2. Habits.- 3. Life Cycle.- 4. Biting Act.- III. Venomous Apparatus.- IV. Venom.- 1. Methods for Obtaining the Venom.- 2. Chemistry.- 3. Separation of Venom Components.- V. Toxicity of Venom in Different Animal Species.- 1. Whole Venom.- 2. Venom Components.- VI. Pharmacology and Mode of Action on Different Zoological Groups.- 1. Invertebrates.- a) Crustacea.- b) Insecta.- c) Mollusca.- 2. Vertebrates.- a) Pisces.- b) Amphibia.- c) Aves.- d) Mammalia.- 3. Toxicity in Cells Cultivated in vitro.- 4. Effect of Toxin on Lipid Bilayer Membranes.- 5. Distribution of Venom in Envenomed Animals.- 6. Protective Activity of Venom Against Botulin Toxin.- VII. Toxicity of Eggs and Tissue Extracts.- References.- B. Epidemiology of Envenomation, Symptomatology, Pathology and Treatment.- I. Epidemiology.- 1. Geographical Distribution.- a) Europe.- b) Asia.- c) Africa.- d) America.- e) Australia.- 2. Factors Influencing Number of Spiders and Frequency of Contacts with Man. Epidemics of Latrodectism.- 3. Other Epidemiological Data.- II. Human Symptomatology.- III. Differential Diagnosis.- IV. Clinical Course, Duration of Hospitalization, Convalescence, and Complications.- 1. Course.- 2. Convalescence.- 3. Complications.- V. Prognosis.- VI. Post-Mortem Findings.- VII. Aspecific Therapy.- VIII. Specific Therapy.- 1. Preparation of Sera.- 2. Cross Activity of Sera Obtained with Antigens from Different Species of Spiders.- 3. Time and Dose of Serum Administration.- IX. Prevention of Latrodectism.- References.- 9 Venoms of Theridiidae, Genus Steatoda.- A. Introduction.- B. Venomous Spiders of the Genus Steatoda.- I. Steatoda paykulliana.- 1. Distribution, Biology, Morphology, and Venomous Apparatus..- 2. Effects of the Toxin.- II. Steatoda grossa.- References.- 10 Venoms of Ctenidae.- A. Introduction.- B. Morphology of the Venomous Apparatus.- I. Chelicerae.- 1. Fangs or Claws.- 2. Basal Segment.- 3. Musculature.- II. Venom Glands.- 1. Musculature.- 2. Histology of the Glandular Tissue.- C. Methods of Collecting Venoms.- 1. Method of Collecting Venom by its Extraction from the Glands..- 2. Method of Collecting Venom by Electrical Stimulation.- D. Physiology of Biting.- E. Crude Venom Pharmacology.- I. Effect on Dogs.- 1. Excruciating Local Pain.- 2. Sneezing.- 3. Lacrimation and Mydriasis.- 4. Hypersalivation.- 5. Erection.- 6. Ejaculation.- 7. Toxicity.- 8. Hypotensive Response.- 9. Tachyphylaxis.- II. Guinea Pig Ileum Contraction.- III. Effects on Mice.- 1. Local Pain.- 2. Hypersalivation.- 3. Erection.- 4. Ejaculation.- 5. Toxicity.- 6. Distensive Paralysis.- IV. Effects on Other Animals.- F. Biochemistry of the Phoneutria nigriventer Venom, and Procedures for its Fractionation.- I. Immunologic Aspects of the Venom.- II. Enzymic Inactivation.- III. Physicochemical Properties of the Active Polypeptides.- IV. Dialysis.- V. Venom Fractionation.- 1. Ammonium Sulfate, Electrophoresis, Barium Sulfate Adsorption.- 2. Flaccid Paralysis.- 3. Hemorrhagic Effect.- VI. Gel Chromatography.- VII. Ion Exchange Columns.- G. Envenomation in Man.- I. Symptomatology.- II. Frequency of Cases.- III. Therapy of Envenomation.- References.- 11 Venoms of Scytodidae. Genus Loxosceles.- A. Distribution and Biology of Venomous Species. Chemistry, Toxicity, Pharmacology and Mode of Action of Venom.- I. Systematics and Distribution of Species.- II. Morphology and Biology.- III. Anatomy and Histology of the Venomous Apparatus.- IV. Physiology, in Particular Physiology of the Bite.- V. Chemistry of the Venom.- 1. Methods of Obtaining the Venom.- 2. Chemical Composition of Venom Extracts.- 3. Fractionation and Characterization of Venom Proteins.- 4. Enzymatic Properties of Venom.- 5. Immunogenicity of the Venom.- VI. Toxicity of Venom and other Components of Loxosceles on Various Animal Species.- 1. In vivo Studies.- 2. In vitro Studies.- VII. Pharmacology and Mechanism of Action.- B. Epidemiology, Symptomatology, Pathology, Prognosis, Treatment, and Prevention of Envenomations.- I. Epidemiology of Envenomations. Geographic and Temporal Distribution of Cases. Other Epidemiologic Data.- II. Human Symptomatology.- 1. Cutaneous Form of Loxoscelism.- 2. Viscerocutaneous Form of Loxoscelism.- III. Differential Diagnosis.- 1. Cutaneous Forms.- 2. Viscerocutaneous Form.- IV. Clinical Course and Duration of Hospitalization.- 1. Local Necrosis and Ulcer.- 2. Viscerocutaneous Involvement.- V. Prognosis and Frequency of Lethal Cases.- VI. Pathology.- VII. Laboratory Findings.- VIII. Treatment.- 1. Nonspecific.- 2. Specific.- IX. Prevention.- References.- 12 The Genus Centruroides (Buthidae) and Its Venom.- A. Species and Their Distribution.- B. Some Aspects of Behavior.- C. The Prevention and Control of Scorpions.- D. Morphology and Function of the Venom Apparatus.- E. Extracting Venom.- F. Mammalian Physiologic Reaction to the Venom.- I. Clinical Observations.- 1. Symptoms of Severe Envenomization (Children under 16 Years of Age).- 2. Symptoms of Envenomization in Adults.- II. Preclinical Observations.- 1. Pharmacologic Considerations.- 2. Pathologic Effects.- 3. Allergic Potentialities.- G. Human Behavior and Scorpions.- H. Venom Chemistry.- J. Suggestions for Therapy.- References.- 13 Venoms of Buthinae.- A. Systematics and Biology of Buthinae.- References.- B. Symptomatology and Treatment of Buthinae Stings.- I. Pathophysiology of the Envenomation.- II. Treatment.- References.- C. Chemistry and Pharmacology of Buthinae Scorpion Venoms.- I. Introduction.- II. Chemistry.- 1. Isolation and Purification.- 2. Composition and Structure.- 3. Chemical Modifications.- III. Pharmacology.- 1. Lethal Potency and Symptomatology.- 2. Cardiovascular Effects.- a) Clinical Investigations.- b) Histopathologic Changes.- c) Vascular Effects.- d) Cardiac Dynamics.- 3. Respiratory Effects.- 4. Muscular Effects.- a) Direct Effects on Skeletal Muscles.- b) Effects Through Neuromuscular Junctions.- c) Effects on Smooth Muscles.- 5. Action on Axonal Membranes.- 6. Action on Arthropods.- IV. Action Mechanisms.- 1. Autopharmacologic Intoxication.- 2. Is There a Direct Excitatory Effect on Muscles?.- 3. Interactions with Sodium, Calcium, and TTX.- 4. The Pharmacologic Diversity of Scorpion Toxins.- References.- 14 Venoms of Tityinae.- A. Systematics, Distribution, Biology, Venomous Apparatus, etc. of Tityinae; Venom Collection, Toxicity, Human Accidents and Treatment of Stings.- 1. The Venomous Species and Their Geographical Distribution.- 2. Description of the Most Venomous Species.- 3. Frequency of the Most Venomous Species.- 4. Food and Life Habits.- 5. Venom Glands.- 6. Quantities and Storage of the Venom.- 7. Toxicity and Human Accidents.- 8. Treatment of Scorpion Envenomation.- References.- B. Chemical and Pharmacologic Aspects of Tityinae Venoms.- I. Chemical Properties of Tityinae Venoms.- 1. Purification of Toxic Components from Tityinae Venoms.- II. Pharmacology of Tityus Venom Intoxication.- 1. Release of Neurotransmitters by Tityus Venom.- a) Acetylcholine.- b) Epinephrine and Norepinephrine.- III. General Effects.- IV. Conclusion.- References.- 15 Chactoid Venoms.- I. Introduction.- II. Morphology of the Telson in Chactoids.- III. Anatomy and Development of the Venom Glands.- IV. Comparative Histology and Histochemistry of the Venom Glands in Adults.- V. Chemical Composition of Chactoid Venoms.- VI. Pharmacology of Chactoid Venoms.- VII. Experimental Toxicity.- VIII. Toxicity for Humans.- IX. Treatment and Prophylaxis of Scorpion Poisoning.- References.- 16 Tick Paralysis.- A. Introduction.- B. Ticks.- I. The Biology of Ixodid Ticks.- II. Classification of Ticks.- III. Feeding in Ixodid Ticks.- IV. Virulence.- C. Hosts.- I. Humans.- 1. Distribution.- 2. Seasonal Incidence.- 3. Age..- 4. Sex.- II. Livestock.- 1. Natural Occurrence.- 2. Experimentally Induced.- III. Wildlife.- IV. Pets.- 1. Natural Occurrence.- 2. Experimentally Induced.- V. Laboratory Animals.- D. Symptomology.- I. Humans.- II. Animals.- E. Mechanism of the Paralysis.- I. Physiology and Pharmacology of Paralysis due to Dermacentor andersoni.- 1. Neuromuscular Transmission.- 2. Nerve Conduction.- 3. Central Nervous Transmission.- 4. Miscellaneous Agents.- II. Experimental Physiological Findings with Other Ticks Species.- 1. Ixodes holocyclus.- 2. Argas (Persicargas) persicus.- III. Identification of the Presence and Removal of the Toxin.- IV. Immunity.- V. Autopsy Findings.- F. Summary.- References.- 17 Toxins of Blattaria.- A. Systematics.- B. Biology.- C. Allergy Caused by Cockroaches.- 1. Contactant Allergens.- 2. Inhalant Allergens.- 3. Injectant Allergens.- 4. Ingestant Allergens.- D. Defensive Glands.- 1. Type I Glands.- 2. Type II Glands.- 3. Type III Glands.- 4. Type IV Glands.- 5. Type V Glands.- References.- 18 Venoms of Rhyncota (Hemiptera).- A. Introduction.- I. Aquatic Heteroptera.- II. Terrestrial Heteroptera.- B. Morphology and Histology of the Scent Glands.- I. Adult Insects.- II. Larvae.- C. Chemistry of the Secretions.- I. Structure of Secretion Components.- 1. Types of Compounds.- 2. Toxins of Aquatic Heteroptera.- 3. Toxins Isolated from Terrestrial Heteroptera.- 4. Toxins Isolated from Homoptera.- II. Extraction Methods.- III. Methods of Purification and Structural Elucidation.- 1. Gas Liquid Chromatography.- 2. Thin-Layer Chromatography.- 3. Spectroscopic Methods.- D. Function of Hemipteran Secretions.- E. Other Glands and Secretions.- References.- 19 Venoms of Coleoptera.- A. Introduction.- B. Morphology and Histology of the Scent Glands.- I. Pygidial Gland.- 1. Reservoir.- 2. Secretory Cells.- 3. Fine Structure of Cells.- 4. Accessory Gland.- II. Thoracic Glands.- III. Other Glands.- C. Chemistry of the Secretions.- I. Structure of Secretion Components.- 1. Types of Compounds.- 2. Toxins of the Alleculidae.- 3. Toxins of the Cantharidae.- 4. Toxins of the Carabidae.- 5. Toxins of the Cerambycidae.- 6. Toxins of the Chrysomelidae.- 7. Toxins of the Coccinellidae.- 8. Toxins of the Dytiscidae.- 9. Toxins of the Gyrinidae.- 10. Toxins of the Meloidae.- 11. Toxins of the Silphidae.- 12. Toxins of the Staphylinidae.- 13. Toxins of the Tenebrionidae.- II. Extraction Methods.- III. Methods of Purification and Structural Elucidation.- 1. Gas Liquid Chromatography.- 2. Thin-Layer and Paper Chromatography.- 3. Spectroscopic Methods.- IV. Biosynthesis.- D. Biological and Physiological Effects of the Toxins.- References.- 20 Venoms of Lepidoptera.- A. Introduction.- B. Erucism.- I. Description.- II. Pathology.- III. Symptomatology.- 1. Pathogenesis.- a) Foreign-Body Syndrome.- b) Toxic Syndrome.- c) Infectious Syndrome.- d) Allergic Syndromes.- 2. Evolution.- 3. Immunity.- IV. Diagnosis.- 1. Super-Family Papilionoidea (Dyar, 1902).- a) Morphidae (Kollar, 1850).- b) Nymphalidae (Swainson, 1872).- 2. Super-Family Bombycoidea (Dyar, 1902).- a) Lasiocampidae (Harris, 1841).- b) Thaumetopoeidae (= Notodontidae).- c) Saturniidae (= Hemileucidae) (Walker, 1855).- 3. Super-Family Noctuoidea (Mösher, 1916).- a) Arctiidae (Stephens, 1829).- b) Lymantriidae (= Liparidae) (Hampson, 1892).- c) Noctuidae (Stephens, 1829).- 4. Super-Family Zygaenoidea (Gravenhorst, 1843).- a) Cochlidiidae (= Eucleidae) (Dyar, 1898).- b) Megalopigydae (Berg, 1882).- 5. The Poison Apparatus.- a) Primitive-Type Poison Apparatus (Beyer, 1922).- b) Developed-Type Poison Apparatus (Foot, 1922).- 6. Toxicology.- a) Obtaining the Poison.- b) Conserving the Poison.- c) Pharmacology of the Extracts of Erucic Poisoning.- V. Treatment.- a) Immediate Treatment.- b) Symptomatic and Preventive Treatment.- c) Treatment of Foreign-Body Syndrome.- VI. Epidemiology.- 1. Erucism on the American Continent.- 2. Erucism on the Continent of Europe.- 3. Erucism in Africa, Asia and Australia.- 4. Epidemiological Structure of Erucism.- a) Factors Relating to the Aetiological Agent.- b) Factors Relating to Erucic Intoxication.- c) Factors Relating to the Environment.- 5. Epidemiological Characteristics of Erucism.- 6. Prevention of Erucism.- a) Measures Directed Against the Primary Source.- b) Measures Directed Against the Means of Transmitting the Poisonous Hairs.- c) Immunization or Desensitization.- C. Lepidopterism.- I. Description.- II. Pathology.- III. Symtomatology.- 1. Pathogenesis.- a) Foreign-Body Syndrome.- b) Toxic Syndrome.- c) Infectious Syndrome.- d) Allergic Syndrome.- 2. Evolution.- 3. Immunity.- IV. Diagnosis.- 1. Families with Poisonous Erucae.- 2. Zygaenidae Family.- 3. Saturnidae Family (= Hemileucidae) (Walker, 1855).- 4. The Poison Apparatus.- 5. Toxicology.- a) Extraction of the Poison.- b) Conservation of the Poison.- c) Pharmacology.- V. Treatment.- a) Immediate.- b) Symptomatic and Preventive.- VI. Epidemiology and Prevention.- 1. South American Lepidopterism.- a) In the Guianas and Venezuela.- b) In Peru.- c) In Brazil.- d) In Argentina.- 2. Epidemiological Structure of Lepidopterism.- a) Factors Relating to the Anthropotoxic Species of the Genus Hylesia.- b) Factors Relating to the Source of Lepidopteran Intoxication.- c) Factors Relating to the Environment.- 3. Prevention of Lepidopterism.- a) Measures Against the Primary Source of Intoxication.- b) Measures Against the Means of Transmission of the Poison-Bearing Flechettes.- References.- 21 Venoms of Apidae.- A. Venom Apparatus, Sting Mechanism, and Venom Collection.- I. Venom Apparatus.- 1. Apini.- 2. Bombini.- 3. Meliponini.- II. Venom Formation.- 1. Apini.- 2. Bombini.- 3. Meliponini.- III. Venom Collection.- 1. Venom Sac and Gland Extraction.- 2. Electrical Excitation of Groups of Bees.- 3. Pure Venom from Individual Hymenoptera.- B. Composition of Apis mellifera Venom.- I. Venom Quantity and Purity.- II. Water Content.- III. Volatile Components.- IV. General Composition.- V. Enzymes.- 1. Hyaluronidase.- 2. Phospholipase A System.- 3. Other Enzyme Studies.- VI. Large Peptides.- 1. General Characteristics.- 2. The Melittin Family.- 3. Apamin, a Neurotoxin.- 4. The Mast Cell Degranulating (MCD) Peptide.- 5. Other Active Peptides.- VII. Small Molecules.- 1. Some General Considerations.- 2. Small Peptides and Free Amino Acids.- 3. Biogenic Amines.- 4. Non-Nitrogenous Compounds.- VIII. Compounds Shown to be Absent.- IX. Summary of Unresolved Questions on Venom Composition.- C. Physiologic Activity of Apis mellifera Venom.- I. Direct and Indirect Activity.- II. Toxicity Studies.- III. Antigenic Character.- 1. Venom Hypersensitivity and Immunity.- 2. Antigenic Comparisons among Various Venoms.- IV. The Arthritis Question.- 1. General Considerations.- 2. Possible Mechanisms.- 3. Potentially Interesting Components.- 4. Speculations.- V. Radioprotective Properties.- VI. Other Physiologic Properties.- D. Venoms of Other Apidae.- I. Other Apini.- II. Bombini.- Summary.- References.- 22 Venoms of Sphecidae, Pompilidae, Mutillidae, and Bethylidae.- A. Introduction.- B. Venoms of Sphecidae.- I. General Aspects.- 1. Biological Notes.- 2. Sting Apparatus and Venom Glands.- 3. Stinging of the Prey.- 4. Venom Actions.- 5. Effectiveness of Paralysis.- 6. Specificity of Venoms.- II. Venoms of Specific Genera.- 1. Genus Philanthus.- a) Aspects of Biology and Preying.- b) Philanthus triangulum.- ?) Anatomy of the Sting Apparatus.- ?) Stinging of the Bee and Action of the Venom.- ?) Mechanism of Action of the Venom.- ?) Specificity of the Venom.- 2. Genus Sceliphron.- a) Composition of the Venom.- C. Venoms of Pompilidae.- I. General Aspects.- II. Stinging and Effects of the Venom on Locomotion.- D. Venoms of Mutillidae.- E. Venoms of Bethylidae.- Appendix 1: Classification of the Family Sphecidae.- References.- 23 Venoms of Vespidae.- A. Introduction.- B. Biology of Vespidae.- I. Taxonomy and Geographical Distribution.- 1. Stenogastrinae.- 2. Polistinae.- 3. Vespinae.- II. Social Behavior.- 1. Life Cycle.- 2. The Nest Entrance.- 3. Foraging Behavior.- 4. Enemies and Parasites.- 5. Defensive Behavior.- 6. Hornet Traps.- 7. Aggressive Behavior-Stinging.- 8. Aggressiveness of Various Species.- C. The Venomous Apparatus.- I. The Nonglandular Parts of the Sting Apparatus. Mechanism of Stinging.- II. The Glandular Parts of the Sting Apparatus.- III. Collection of the Venom.- IV. Quantity of Venom Collected from a Single Wasp or Hornet.- D. Chemistry of Vespidae Venoms.- I. Physico-Chemical Properties.- II. Components of Vespidae Venoms.- 1. Low-Molecular-Weight Substances.- a) Acetylcholine.- b) Histamine.- c) Serotonin (5-Hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT).- d) Dopamine, Noradrenaline, and Adrenaline.- e) Kinins.- 2. High-Molecular-Weight Substances: Enzymes.- a) Cholinesterase.- b) Histidine Decarboxylase.- c) Phospholipases.- d) Acid, Alkaline, and Natural DNAses.- e) Hyaluronidase.- f) Protease.- g) Poly- and Disaccharidases.- 3. Miscellaneous Substances.- E. Toxicology.- I. Systemic Toxicity of V.v.- II. Toxicity of V.v. as Related to Ontogenesis.- III. Pathological Findings.- F. Pharmacology.- I. Cardiovascular Apparatus.- 1. Blood Pressure.- 2. Hemolysis.- 3. Anticoagulant Activity.- 4. Hyperglycemia.- 5. Increase in Permeability of Microcirculation Vessels.- 6. Respiratory Apparatus.- 7. Striated Muscle.- 8. Ocular Irritation.- 9. Isolated Organ Preparations.- 10. Release of Histamine.- 11. Pharmacology of Vespidae Kinins.- G. Antigenicity and Immunological Aspects.- H. Clinical Aspects of Envenomation.- I. Incidence of Sting and Dangers.- II. Symptomatology.- 1. Local Symptoms.- 2. Generalized Symptoms.- a) Toxic Reactions.- b) Allergic Reactions.- III. Pathology.- IV. Treatment.- 1. First Aid.- 2. Emergency Treatment.- 3. Preventive Therapy-Desensitization.- V. Prevention of Stinging.- VI. Control of Vespidae.- J. Concluding Remarks.- References.- 24 Venoms of Braconidae.- A. Parasitism by Braconidae.- I. Stinging and Parasitism.- II. Paralysis of Hosts.- III. The Preferred Species for Study.- B. The Venom Apparatus.- I. Morphology and Histology.- II. Mechanism of Action.- III. Volume of Ejected Venom.- C. Methods of Obtaining Venom for Study.- D. Injection and Transport of Venom.- E. Assays of Venom Activity.- F. Braconid Venom.- I. Chemistry.- II. Stability.- III. Potency.- IV. Production, Storage, and Use of Venom.- 1. Synthesis.- 2. Storage and Volume of Venom Used.- 3. Rate of Venom Production.- G. Mode of Action of Venom.- I. Effect on the Heart.- II. Effect on the Gut.- III. Effect on Gross Respiration.- IV. Effect on Neuromuscular Activity.- V. Biochemical Studies.- H. Host Preferences and Host Sensitivity to Venom.- J. Immune Relationships.- References.- 25 Venoms and Venom Apparatuses of the Formicidae: Myrmeciinae, Ponerinae, Dorylinae, Pseudomyrmecinae, Myrmicinae and Formicinae.- A. Introduction.- B. Venoms and Dufour’s Gland Constituents.- I. Myrmeciinae.- 1. Venom.- a) Histamine.- b) Smooth Muscle Stimulant.- c) Hyaluronidase.- d) Direct Hemolytic Factor.- e) Phospholipase A.- f) Histamine-Releasing Activity.- 2. Dufour’s Gland Constituents.- II. Ponerinae.- 1. Venom.- 2. Dufour’s Gland Constituents.- III. Dorylinae.- 1. Venom.- IV. Pseudomyrmecinae.- 1. Venom.- 2. Dufour’s Gland Constituents.- V. Myrmicinae.- 1. Venom.- 2. Dufour’s Gland Constituents.- VI. Formicinae.- 1. Venom.- 2. Dufour’s Gland Constituents.- C. Morphology of the Hymenopterous Venom Apparatus.- D. General Formicid Venom Apparatus.- E. Venom Apparatus Sclerites and their Musculature = General Formicid Structure.- I. Myrmeciinae and Ponerinae.- II. Dorylinae.- III. Pseudomyrmecinae.- IV. Myrmicinae.- V. Formicinae.- F. Abdominal Muscles That Indirectly Affect the Movement of the Venom Apparatus.- G. Muscles of the Venom Apparatus.- H. Evolution of the Venom Sclerites.- I. Glands Associated with the Venom Apparatus.- I. Myrmeciinae, Ponerinae, Dorylinae and Pseudomyrmecinae.- II. Myrmicinae.- III. Formicinae.- J. Gland Phylogeny.- K. Envenomization.- L. Mandibular Gland Constituents.- I. Ponerinae.- II. Dorylinae.- III. Pseudomyrmecinae.- IV. Myrmicinae.- V. Formicinae.- M. Morphology of the Mandibular Glands.- N. Metapleural Gland Products.- I. Myrmicinae.- O. Morphology of the Metapleural Glands.- P. Natural Products of the Formicidae = An, Overview.- Q. The Formicid Venom Apparatus = Phyletic Implications.- I. Relationship to Wasps.- II. Formicinae.- III. Pseudomyrmecinae.- IV. Myrmicinae.- V. Ponerinae, Dorylinae, Cerapachyinae.- VI. Old and New World Dorylinae.- References.- 26 Venom and Venom Apparatuses of the Formicidae: Dolichoderinae and Aneuretinae.- A. Introduction and Taxonomy.- B. Dolichoderine Natural Products and Anatomy of the Venom Apparatus.- I. Mandibular Gland Constituents.- II. Poison Gland Constituents.- III. Anatomy of the Venom Apparatus Components in the Dolichoderinae.- IV. Anatomy of Venom Sclerites.- V. Dufour’s Gland Constituents.- VI. Anatomy of Dufour’s Gland.- C. Anal Gland Constituents.- I. Anatomy of the Anal Glands in the Dolichoderinae.- II. Biological Activities of Dolichoderine Anal Gland Products.- D. Dolichoderine Natural Products = An Overview.- E. Phyletic Implications Based on Venom Slerites and Associated Glands.- References.- Author Index.