Aircraft Propulsion: Cleaner, Leaner, and Greener

ISBN-13: 9781119718642 / Angielski / Twarda / 2021 / 1040 str.

Saeed Farokhi

Spis treści

Preface to the Third EditionPreface to the Second EditionPreface to the First Edition1. Introduction1.1 History of the Airbreathing Jet Engine, a Twentieth-Century Invention--The Beginning1.2 Innovations in Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines1.2.1 Multispool Configuration1.2.2 Variable Stator1.2.3 Transonic Compressor1.2.4 Low-Emission Combustor1.2.5 Turbine Cooling1.2.6 Exhaust Nozzles1.2.7 Modern Materials and Manufacturing Techniques1.3 Twenty-first Century Aviation Goal: Sustainability1.3.1 Combustion Emissions1.3.2 Greenhouse Gases1.3.3 Fuels for Sustainable Aviation1.4 New Engine Concepts in Sustainable Aviation1.4.1 Advanced GT Concepts: ATP/CROR and GTF1.4.2 Adaptive Cycle Engine1.4.3 Advanced Airbreathing Rocket Technology1.4.4 Wave Rotor Topping Cycle1.4.5 Pulse Detonation Engine (PDE)1.4.6 Millimeter-Scale Gas Turbine Engines: Triumph of MEMS and Digital Fabrication1.4.7 Combined Cycle Propulsion: Engines from Takeoff to Space1.4.8 Hybrid-Electric and Distributed Electric Propulsion1.5 New Vehicle Technologies1.6 Summary1.7 Roadmap for the Third EditionReferencesProblems2. Compressible Flow with Heat and Friction: A Review2.1 Introduction2.2 A Brief Review of Thermodynamics2.3 Isentropic Process and Isentropic Flow2.4 Conservation Principles for Systems and Control Volumes2.5 Speed of Sound & Mach Number2.6 Stagnation State2.7 Quasi-One-Dimensional Flow2.8 Area-Mach Number Relationship2.9 Sonic Throat2.10 Waves in Supersonic Flow2.11 Normal Shocks2.12 Oblique Shocks2.13 Conical Shocks2.14 Expansion Waves2.15 Frictionless, Constant-Area Duct Flow with Heat Transfer: Rayleigh Flow2.16 Adiabatic Flow of a Calorically Perfect Gas in a Constant-Area Duct with Friction: Fanno Flow2.17 Friction (Drag) Coefficient Cf and D'Arcy Friction Factor fD2.18 Dimensionless Parameters2.19 Fluid Impulse2.20 Summary of Fluid ImpulseReferencesProblems3. Engine Thrust and Performance Parameters3.1 Introduction3.1.1 Takeoff Thrust3.2 Installed Thrust--Some Bookkeeping Issues on Thrust and Drag3.3 Engine Thrust Based on the Sum of Component Impulse3.4 Rocket Thrust3.5 Airbreathing Engine Performance Parameters3.5.1 Specific Thrust3.5.2 Specific Fuel Consumption and Specific Impulse3.5.3 Thermal Efficiency3.5.4 Propulsive Efficiency3.5.5 Engine Overall Efficiency and Its Impact on Aircraft Range and Endurance3.6 Modern Engines, Their Architecture, and Some Performance Characteristics3.7 SummaryReferencesProblems4. Gas Turbine Engine Cycle Analysis4.1 Introduction4.2 The Gas Generator4.3 Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines4.3.1 The Turbojet Engine4.3.1.1 The Inlet4.3.1.2 The Compressor4.3.1.3 The Burner4.3.1.4 The Turbine4.3.1.5 The Nozzle4.3.1.6 Thermal Efficiency of a Turbojet Engine4.3.1.7 Propulsive Efficiency of a Turbojet Engine4.3.1.8 The Overall Efficiency of a Turbojet Engine4.3.1.9 Performance Evaluation of a Turbojet Engine4.3.2 The Turbojet Engine with an Afterburner4.3.2.1 Introduction4.3.2.2 Analysis4.3.2.3 Optimum Compressor Pressure Ratio for Maximum (Ideal) Thrust Turbojet Engine with Afterburner4.3.3 The Turbofan Engine4.3.3.1 Introduction4.3.3.2 Analysis of a Separate-Exhaust Turbofan Engine4.3.3.3 Thermal Efficiency of a Turbofan Engine4.3.3.4 Propulsive Efficiency of a Turbofan Engine4.3.4 Ultra-High Bypass (UHB) Turbofan Engines4.4 Analysis of a Mixed-Exhaust Turbofan Engine with an Afterburner4.4.1 Mixer4.4.2 Cycle Analysis4.4.2.1 Solution Procedure4.5 The Turboprop Engine4.5.1 Introduction4.5.2 Propeller Theory4.5.2.1 Momentum Theory4.5.2.2 Blade Element Theory4.5.3 Turboprop Cycle Analysis4.5.3.1 The New Parameters4.5.3.2 Design Point Analysis4.5.3.3 Optimum Power Split Between the Propeller and the Jet4.6 Promising Propulsion and Power Technologies in Sustainable Aviation4.6.1 Distributed Combustion Concepts in Advanced Gas Turbine Engine Core4.6.2 Multi-Fuel (Cryogenic-Kerosene) Hybrid Propulsion Concept4.6.3 Intercooled and Recuperated Turbofan Engines4.6.4 Active Core Concepts4.6.5 Wave Rotor Combustion4.6.6 Pulse Detonation Engine (PDE)4.6.6.1 Idealized Laboratory PDE: Thrust Tube4.6.6.2 Pulse Detonation Ramjet4.6.6.3 Turbofan Engine with PDE4.6.6.4 Pulse Detonation Rocket Engine (PDRE)4.6.6.5 Vehicle-Level Performance Evaluation of PDE4.6.7 Adaptive Cycle Engines (ACE)4.7 SummaryReferencesProblems5. General Aviation and Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle Propulsion System5.1 Introduction5.2 Cycle Analysis5.2.1 Otto Cycle5.2.2 Real Engine Cycles5.2.2.1 Four-Stroke Cycle Engines5.2.2.2 Diesel Engines5.2.2.3 Two-Stroke Cycle Engines5.2.2.4 Rotary (Wankel) Engines5.3 Power and Efficiency5.4 Engine Components and Classifications5.4.1 Engine Components5.4.2 Reciprocating Engine Classifications5.4.2.1 Classification by Cylinder Arrangement5.4.2.2 Classification by Cooling Arrangement5.4.2.3 Classification by Operating Cycle5.4.2.4 Classification by Ignition Type5.5 Scaling of Aircraft Reciprocating Engines5.5.1 Scaling of Aircraft Diesel Engines5.6 Aircraft Engine Systems5.6.1 Aviation Fuels and Engine Knock5.6.2 Carburetion and Fuel Injection Systems5.6.2.1 Float-Type Carburetors5.6.2.2 Pressure Injection Carburetors5.6.2.3 Fuel Injection Systems5.6.2.4 Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC)5.6.3 Ignition Systems5.6.3.1 Battery Ignition Systems5.6.3.2 High Tension Ignition System5.6.3.3 Low Tension Ignition System5.6.3.4 Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC)5.6.3.5 Ignition Boosters5.6.3.6 Spark Plugs5.6.4 Lubrication Systems5.6.5 Supercharging5.7 Electric Engines5.7.1 Electric Motors5.7.2 Solar cells5.7.3 Advanced Batteries5.7.4 Fuel cells5.7.5 State of the Art for Electric Propulsion - Future Technology5.8 Propellers and Reduction GearsReferencesProblems6. Aircraft Engine Inlets and Nozzles6.1 Introduction6.2 The Flight Mach Number and its Impact on Inlet Duct Geometry6.3 Diffusers6.4 An Ideal Diffuser6.5 Real Diffusers and their Stall Characteristics6.6 Subsonic Diffuser Performance6.7 Subsonic Cruise Inlet6.8 Transition Ducts6.9 An Interim Summary for Subsonic Inlets6.10 Supersonic Inlets6.10.1 Isentropic Convergent-Divergent Inlets6.10.2 Methods to Start a Supersonic Convergent-Divergent Inlet6.10.2.1 Overspeeding6.10.2.2 Kantrowitz-Donaldson Inlet6.10.2.3 Variable-Throat Isentropic C-D Inlet6.11 Normal Shock Inlets6.12 External Compression Inlets6.12.1 Optimum Ramp Angles6.12.2 Design and Off-Design Operation6.13 Variable Geometry--External Compression Inlets6.13.1 Variable Ramps6.14 Mixed-Compression Inlets6.15 Supersonic Inlet Types and their Performance--A Review6.16 Standards for Supersonic Inlet Recovery6.17 Exhaust Nozzle6.18 Gross Thrust6.19 Nozzle Adiabatic Efficiency6.20 Nozzle Total Pressure Ratio6.21 Nozzle Pressure Ratio (NPR) and Critical Nozzle Pressure Ratio (NPRcrit.)6.22 Relation between Nozzle Figures of Merit, eta n and pi n6.23 A Convergent Nozzle or a De Laval?6.24 The Effect of Boundary Layer Formation on Nozzle Internal Performance6.25 Nozzle Exit Flow Velocity Coefficient6.26 Effect of Flow Angularity on Gross Thrust6.27 Nozzle Gross Thrust Coefficient Cfg6.28 Overexpanded Nozzle Flow--Shock Losses6.29 Nozzle Area Scheduling, A8 and A9/A86.30 Nozzle Exit Area Scheduling, A9/A86.31 Nozzle Cooling6.32 Thrust Reverser and Thrust Vectoring6.33 Hypersonic Nozzle6.34 Exhaust Mixer and Gross Thrust Gain in a Mixed-Flow Turbofan Engine6.35 Engine Noise6.35.1 Subsonic Jet Noise6.35.2 Chevron Nozzle6.35.3 Supersonic Jet Noise6.35.4 Engine Noise Mitigation through Wing Shielding6.36 Nozzle-Turbine (Structural) Integration6.37 Summary of Exhaust SystemsReferencesProblems7. Combustion Chambers and Afterburners7.1 Introduction7.2 Laws Governing Mixture of Gases7.3 Chemical Reaction and Flame Temperature7.4 Chemical Equilibrium and Chemical Composition7.4.1 The Law of Mass Action7.4.2 Equilibrium Constant KP7.5 Chemical Kinetics7.5.1 Ignition and Relight Envelope7.5.2 Reaction Timescale7.5.3 Flammability Limits7.5.4 Flame Speed7.5.5 Flame Stability7.5.6 Spontaneous Ignition Delay Time7.5.7 Combustion-Generated Pollutants7.6 Combustion Chamber7.6.1 Combustion Chamber Total Pressure Loss7.6.2 Combustor Flow Pattern and Temperature Profile7.6.3 Combustor Liner and its Cooling Methods7.6.4 Combustion Efficiency7.6.5 Some Combustor Sizing and Scaling Laws7.6.6 Afterburner7.7 Combustion-Generated Pollutants7.7.1 Greenhouse Gases, CO2 and H2O7.7.2 Carbon Monoxide, CO, and Unburned Hydrocarbons, UHC7.7.3 Oxides of Nitrogen, NO and NO27.7.4 Smoke7.7.5 Engine Emission Standards7.7.6 Low-Emission Combustors7.7.7 Impact of NO on the Ozone Layer7.8 Aviation Fuels7.9 Alternative Jet Fuels (AJFs)7.9.1 Conversion Pathways to Jet Fuel7.9.2 AJF Evaluation and Certification/Qualification7.9.3 Impact of Biofuel on Emissions7.10 Cryogenic Fuels7.10.1 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)7.10.1.1 Composition of Natural Gas and LNG7.10.2 Hydrogen7.10.2.1 Hydrogen Production7.10.2.2 Hydrogen Delivery and Storage7.10.3 Energy Density Comparison7.11 Combustion Instability: Screech and Rumble7.11.1 Screech Damper7.12 SummaryReferencesProblems8. Aerodynamics of Axial-Flow Compressors and Fans8.1 Introduction8.2 The Geometry8.3 Rotor and Stator Frames of Reference8.4 The Euler Turbine Equation8.5 Axial-Flow Versus Radial-Flow Machines8.6 Axial-Flow Compressors and Fans8.6.1 Definition of Flow Angles8.6.2 Stage Parameters8.6.3 Cascade Aerodynamics8.6.4 Aerodynamic Forces on Compressor Blades8.6.5 Three-Dimensional Flow8.6.5.1 Blade Vortex Design8.6.5.2 Three-Dimensional Losses8.6.5.3 Reynolds Number Effect8.7 Compressor Performance Map8.8 Compressor Instability - Stall and Surge8.9 Multistage Compressors and their Operating Line8.10 Multistage Compressor Stalling Pressure Rise and Stall Margin8.11 Multistage Compressor Starting Problem8.12 The Effect of Inlet Flow Condition on Compressor Performance8.13 Isometric and Cutaway Views of Axial-Flow Compressor Hardware8.14 Compressor Design Parameters and Principles8.14.1 Blade Design - Blade Selection8.14.2 Compressor Annulus Design8.14.3 Compressor Stall Margin8.15 Concepts in Compressor and Fan Noise Mitigation8.16 SummaryReferencesProblems9. Centrifugal Compressor Aerodynamics9.1 Introduction9.2 Centrifugal Compressors9.3 Radial Diffuser9.4 Inducer9.5 Inlet Guide Vanes (IGVs) and Inducer-Less Impellers9.6 Impeller Exit Flow and Blockage Effects9.7 Efficiency and Performance9.8 SummaryReferencesProblems10. Aerothermodynamics of Gas Turbines10.1 Introduction10.2 Axial-Flow Turbines10.2.1 Optimal Nozzle Exit Swirl Mach Number M theta 210.2.2 Turbine Blade Losses10.2.2.1 Blade Profile Loss10.2.2.2 Secondary Flow Losses10.2.2.3 Annulus Losses10.2.3 Optimum Solidity10.2.4 Turbine Cooling10.2.4.1 Convective Cooling10.2.4.2 Impingement Cooling10.2.4.3 Film Cooling10.2.4.4 Transpiration Cooling10.3 Turbine Performance Map10.4 The Effect of Cooling on Turbine Efficiency10.5 Turbine Blade Profile Design10.5.1 Angles10.5.2 Other Blade Geometrical Parameters10.5.3 Throat Sizing10.5.4 Throat Reynolds Number Reo10.5.5 Turbine Blade Profile Design10.5.6 Blade Vibration and Campbell Diagram10.5.7 Turbine Blade and Disk Material Selection and Design Criteria10.6 Stresses in Turbine Blades and Disks and Useful Life Estimation10.7 Axial-Flow Turbine Design and Practices10.8 Gas Turbine Design Summary10.9 Advances in Turbine Material and Cooling10.10 SummaryReferencesProblems11. Aircraft Engine Component Matching and Off-Design Analysis11.1 Introduction11.2 Engine (Steady-State) Component Matching11.2.1 Engine Corrected Parameters11.2.2 Inlet-Compressor Matching11.2.3 Compressor-Combustor Matching11.2.4 Combustor-Turbine Matching11.2.5 Compressor-Turbine Matching and Gas Generator Pumping Characteristics11.2.5.1 Gas Generator Pumping Characteristics11.2.6 Turbine-Afterburner (Variable-Geometry) Nozzle Matching11.2.6.1 Fixed-Geometry Convergent Nozzle Matching11.3 Engine Off-Design Analysis11.3.1 Off-Design Analysis of a Turbojet Engine11.3.2 Off-Design Analysis of an Afterburning Turbojet Engine11.3.3 Off-Design Analysis of a Separate-Flow Turbofan (Two-Spool) Engine11.4 Unchoked Nozzles and Other Off-Design Iteration Strategies11.4.1 Unchoked Exhaust Nozzle11.4.2 Unchoked Turbine Nozzle11.4.3 Turbine Efficiency at Off-Design11.4.4 Variable Gas Properties11.5 Principles of Engine Performance Testing11.5.1 Force of Inlet Bellmouth on Engine Thrust Stand11.5.1.1 Bellmouth Instrumentation11.5.1.2 The Effect of Fluid Viscosity11.5.1.3 The Force of Inlet Bellmouth on Engine Thrust Stand11.6 SummaryReferencesProblems12. Chemical Rocket and Hypersonic Propulsion12.1 Introduction12.2 From Takeoff to Earth Orbit12.3 Chemical Rockets12.4 Chemical Rocket Applications12.4.1 Launch Engines12.4.2 Boost Engines12.4.3 Space Maneuver Engines12.4.4 Attitude Control and Orbital Correction Rockets12.5 New Parameters in Rocket Propulsion12.6 Thrust Coefficient, CF12.7 Characteristic Velocity, c* 12.8 Flight Performance12.9 Multistage Rockets12.10 Propulsive and Overall Efficiencies12.11 Chemical Rocket Combustion Chamber12.11.1 Liquid Propellant Combustion Chambers12.11.1.1 Some Design Guidelines for Injector Plates12.11.1.2 Combustion Instabilities12.11.2 Solid Propellant Combustion Chambers12.12 Thrust Chamber Cooling12.12.1 Liquid Propellant Thrust Chambers12.12.2 Cooling of Solid Propellant Thrust Chambers12.13 Combustor Volume and Shape12.14 Rocket Nozzles12.14.1 Multiphase Flow in Rocket Nozzles12.14.2 Flow Expansion in Rocket Nozzles12.14.3 Thrust Vectoring Nozzles12.15 High-Speed Airbreathing Engines12.15.1 Supersonic Combustion Ramjet12.15.1.1 Inlet Analysis12.15.1.2 Scramjet Combustor12.15.1.3 Scramjet Nozzle12.16 Rocket-Based Airbreathing Propulsion12.17 Compact Fusion Reactor: The Path to Clean, Unlimited Energy12.18 SummaryReferencesProblems

O autorze

Saeed Farokhi, PhD, is Professor Emeritus of Aerospace Engineering at the University of Kansas, USA. His main areas of research focus are propulsion systems, flow control, renewable energy, and computational fluid dynamics. He is Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. He is Associate Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.