Advisory Work in Crop Pest and Disease Management

ISBN-13: 9783540162421 / Angielski / Miękka / 1986 / 284 str.

Josef Palti; Reuben Ausher; Z. Arenstein

Opis

Advisory work, by its very nature, is an intermediary between the re search worker and those who apply the results of his research. The challenge of advisory work is to devise means of and find pathways for transmitting research results to the user, overcome the reluctance of the latter to change, and often combine novel ideas with well-estab lished traditions. Nowhere is this challenge greater than in farming. This is especially true in developing countries, where the gap in the educational level between research workers and farmers may be ex tremely wide. Moreover, village-level advisers are often overburdened with non-professional functions and are not sufficiently backed up by well-trained professional advisers. Thus, in many of these countries there is a serious discrepancy between the knowledge available and that needed and actually applied on the farm. Advisory work in crop protection is no exception, but profits to some extent from two facts: (1) because of the potentially catastrophic nature of pest attack, governments often operate a supervisory crop protection service, the staff of which may be able to dispense some pest control advice; and (2) the staff of pesticide distributors tends to fill, at least in part, the need for advice on how to fight pests and dis eases with chemicals."

Spis treści

1 Advisory Work in Pest and Disease Management in the General Framework of Agricultural Production.- 1.1 The Place of Pest and Disease Management in the Agricultural Economy, and Its Legal Framework.- 1.1.1 Communal, Risk, and Emergency Aspects of Crop Pest and Disease Control.- 1.1.1.1 Risk.- 1.1.1.2 Emergency.- 1.1.2 The Legal Framework for Pest and Disease Control and for the Adviser’s Work.- 1.1.2.1 Importance of the Legal Framework.- 1.1.2.2 Aspects to Be Covered by Law.- 1.1.2.3 Legal Aspects and the Adviser’s Work.- 1.2 Crop Protection Advice: Its Place in the General Scheme of Farming and of Farm Advice.- 1.2.1 Overall Phytosanitary Management — the Basic Aim of Crop Protection Advice.- 1.2.2 A Crop Worth Protecting Is the Prerequisite for Crop Protection.- 1.2.3 Aspects Particular to Advisory Work in Pest and Disease Control.- 1.2.3.1 Multi-Crop and Multi-Annual Aspects.- 1.2.3.2 Urgency of Advice.- 1.2.4 Integration of General Cropping and Pest Control Advice.- 1.2.4.1 Risk of Crop Loss.- 1.2.4.2 Availability and Proficiency of Advisory Personnel.- 1.2.4.3 Farmers’ Educational Level.- 1.2.4.4 Availability of Auxiliary Services.- 1.2.5 The Target Groups for Advisory Work in Pest and Disease Control.- 1.2.6 Organizational Concepts for Integrating Cropping and Crop Protection Advice.- 1.2.7 A Brief Look at the Range and Limitations of Advice by Public Agencies and by Pesticide Distributors.- 1.3 Basic Knowledge and Current Information for the Crop Protection Adviser.- 1.3.1 Basic Knowledge.- 1.3.1.1 The Crop in Health.- 1.3.1.2 Innate Destructiveness of Pests and Pathogens.- 1.3.2 Current Information for the Adviser.- 1.3.2.1 Potential Crop Value and Current Prices of Produce.- 1.3.2.2 Pesticide Registration and Compatibility.- 1.3.2.3 Health Risks and Antidotes.- 1.3.2.4 Weather Data.- 1.4 Farmers’ Perceptions of Pest and Disease Control.- 2 Advice for Pest and Disease Control: Tasks and Tools.- 2.1 The Range of Crop Protection Advice Is Extremely Wide.- 2.2 Detection and Diagnosis of Crop Disorders and of Pest and Disease Occurrence.- 2.2.1 Nonparasitic Disorders in Field and Orchard Crops.- 2.2.1.1 Stress and Injury.- 2.2.1.2 Patterns of Symptom Distribution.- Spatial Distribution.- Distribution over Plant Species.- Diagnosis of Air Pollution Symptoms.- 2.2.1.3 Recognition of Some Common Symptoms of Nonparasitic Disorders in Field Crops.- 2.2.1.4 Recognition of Some Nonparasitic Disorders in Fruit Crops.- Disorders Due to Weather Factors.- Nutrient and Water-Related Disorders.- Incompatibility of Rootstock and Scion.- 2.2.2 First Steps in the Detection and Diagnosis of Pest and Pathogen Trouble.- 2.2.2.1 Symptoms Caused by Pests and Pathogens on the Host as a Whole or on Major Parts of the Host.- 2.2.2.2 Common Symptoms of Pests and Pathogens Affecting Single Organs of the Shoot.- Spots on Leaves and Fruits.- Holes and Tunnels.- Dry and Soft Rots.- Crinkling or Curling of Leaves.- 2.2.2.3 Pest and Pathogen Symptoms Common on Field and Vegetable Crops.- Pre- and Post-emergence Afflictions.- “Heart Trouble”.- The Host as a Whole Is Affected.- Individual Organs Are Affected.- 2.2.2.4 Pest and Pathogen Symptoms Common on Orchard Crops.- The Tree as a Whole Is Affected.- Individual Organs Are Affected.- 2.2.2.5 Diagnosis of Combined Stress and Pest or Pathogen Afflictions.- 2.2.2.6 A Look into the Future: Computer-Based Disease Diagnosis.- 2.2.3 The Disease Identification Service or Plant Clinic.- 2.2.3.1 Function and Scope of the Disease Identification Service.- 2.2.3.2 What Crop Afflictions Most Frequently Require Identification by the Plant Clinic?.- 2.2.3.3 How Can the Adviser Derive Full Benefit from the Clinic?.- 2.3 Crop Value, Economic Damage Thresholds, and Treatment Thresholds.- 2.3.1 Factors Affecting the Level of Yield Reduction and the Economic Damage Threshold.- 2.3.2 Damage or Yield Reduction Amenable to Mitigation or Prevention.- 2.3.3 Prognosis of Preventable Yield Reduction.- 2.3.4 Crop Factors Affecting Determination of Treatment Thresholds.- 2.3.5 Economic Factors in the Determination of Treatment Thresholds.- Growing Expenses Already Incurred.- Sampling Expenses.- Harvesting and Marketing Expenses.- Direct and Indirect Cost of Treatment.- Market Price of Produce.- 2.3.6 Constraints Affecting Determination of Treatment Thresholds.- 2.3.7 Use of Computers to Define Treatment Thresholds.- 2.3.8 Procedures for Defining Treatment Thresholds.- 2.3.9 Treatment Thresholds for Peasant Farmers.- 2.3.10 Where Treatment Thresholds Are Not Considered — Prophylactic Application of Pesticides.- 2.4 Pest and Disease Monitoring and Management.- 2.4.1 Sampling for Crop Pest and Disease Monitoring and Control.- 2.4.1.1 Sampling of Crops for the Determination of Pest Populations and Treatment Thresholds.- Pest and Pathogen Behaviour as Related to Sampling.- Spatial and Statistical Distribution Patterns.- Size of Reference Plots.- Allocation of Sampling Points in the Reference Plot.- The Number and Size of Samples.- Sequential Sampling.- Successive Sampling.- Weighting or Calibration.- Drawing Up a Plan for Threshold Sampling.- 2.4.1.2 Selective Sampling for Monitoring Application Efficacy.- 2.4.2 Monitoring and Prognosis by Environmental and Empirical Criteria.- 2.4.2.1 Pre-Season Weather and Infection Criteria for Prognosis and Monitoring.- Weather and Level of Infection or Infestation in Preceding Seasons.- Winter Monitoring of Pests on Branches of Deciduous Fruit Trees.- 2.4.2.2 Empirical Threshold Dates of Pest and Disease Appearance.- 2.4.2.3 In-Season Monitoring According to Temperature and Humidity Effects on Pest and Disease Appearance.- Temperature Sums or Degree Days.- Prediction by Combined Temperature and Humidity Factors.- 2.4.2.4 The Growth Stage or Age of the Crop as Guide for Monitoring.- 2.4.3 Monitoring by Trapping Potentially Harmful Organisms to Guide Pesticide Applications.- 2.4.3.1 Factors Affecting the Use of Insect Traps.- 2.4.3.2 Trapping Methods for Major Groups of Flying or Air-Borne Pests.- Aphids and Whiteflies.- Scale Insects.- Flies and Midges.- Beetles and Weevils.- Mots and Butterflies.- 2.4.3.3 Trapping Spores of Fungi.- 2.4.3.4 Monitoring Viruses and Their Vectors.- 2.4.4 Monitoring by Counting or Appraising Pest Populations or Crop Tissue Affected.- 2.4.4.1 Counting Pests or Affected Plants.- Monitoring Cotton Pests in Israel.- Apple Pests in Central Europe.- 2.4.4.2 Visual Appraisal of Symptoms.- Assessment of Incidence.- Assessment of Severity.- Small, Simple Units.- Large, Composite Units.- Evaluation of Symptom Appraisal and Establishment of Thresholds.- 2.4.5 Remote Sensing by Aerial Infrared Colour Photography as an Aid in Monitoring Crops for Pests and Diseases.- 2.4.5.1 Principles of Remote Sensing.- 2.4.5.2 Factors Affecting Reflectance from Crops.- Pigments.- Leaf Structure.- Spatial Factors.- 2.4.5.3 Criteria for Interpreting the Photographs.- 2.4.5.4 Contribution of Aerial Remote Sensing to the Monitoring of Crops.- 2.4.5.5 Examples of the Application of Aerial Remote Sensing in Crop Protection Work.- Sooty Mould on Citrus and Cotton Crops.- Disease, Mineral Deficiency and Stress Assessment in Plantations.- Sclerotinia Blight of Peanuts.- Late Blight of Potatoes.- Nematodes in Cotton.- 2.4.6 Optimization of Pest Management Advice by Computer-Based Decision Making.- 2.4.6.1 Computerized Systems for Pest Management.- Adoption of the Computerized Advisory Approach.- The Development of Computerized Monitoring and Information Delivery for Pest Management.- Examples of Computerized Pest and Disease Management Schemes in Operation.- How Can Advisory Personnel Promote Development of Computerized Pest Management Schemes and Their Adoption by Growers?.- Outlook.- 2.4.6.2 Development of a Model for Monitoring Heliothis armígera in Cotton in Israel.- The Conventional Procedure for Monitoring H. armígera.- Development of the Model for Consecutive, Interrelated Sampling.- 2.4.6.3 Optimization of the Control of Wheat Leaf Diseases by Integration of Advisory and Research Work.- Thresholds for Initiation of Control.- Thresholds for Termination of Control.- The Role Played by Climatic Conditions and the Decision-Making Scheme.- The Interplay of Economic and Biological Factors.- Computerized Advisory Schemes in Aid of Decision-Making.- 2.4.7 Regional and Communal Considerations in Pest and Disease Control Advice.- 2.4.7.1 Regional Warning Systems and Detection of Trouble Spots.- 2.4.7.2 Sanitation and Detection of Parasite Sources.- Agricultural Waste and Water.- Parasite Transmission by Weeds.- Transmission from Minor to Major Crops.- Transmission from Early to Late Crops.- 2.4.7.3 Bees Have to Be Protected from Pesticide Damage.- 2.4.7.4 Regional Pest and Disease Control.- Integrated Control.- Detection and Avoidance of Parasite Resistance to Pesticides.- Communal Pest Control Operations.- 2.5 Pesticide Application: Technique and Efficiency.- 2.5.1 The Application Target: Crop and Pest.- 2.5.1.1 The Host Surface Area, Its Shape and Physicochemical Properties.- Deposition.- Retention of Pesticide.- Spread After Deposition.- 2.5.1.2 The Position and Orientation of the Host Organ to Be Protected.- 2.5.1.3 The Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Leaf Area Volume Index (LAVI).- 2.5.2 Pesticides and Application.- Stomach Poisons.- Contact Poisons.- Volatile, Penetrating and Systemic Pesticides.- 2.5.3 The Movement of Pesticide Particles, as Influenced by the Environment, and the Danger of Drift.- 2.5.4 Pesticide Distribution Techniques.- 2.5.4.1 Spray Application Techniques.- Spray Clouds.- Placement Spraying.- Controlled Droplet Application (CDA).- Electrostatic Spraying.- Air Assisted Spraying.- 2.5.4.2 Application of Dusts and Granules.- 2.5.4.3 Fumigation for the Control of Soil-Borne Pests and Diseases.- 2.5.4.4 Dipping, Drench-Sprays and Spray Disinfection.- 2.5.5 Rates of Application and Uniformity of Coverage.- 2.5.5.1 Rate of Application.- 2.5.5.2 Uniformity of Coverage.- 2.5.6 Dosage and Calibration.- 2.5.7 How to Measure Efficiency of Application.- 2.5.8 Development of Application Techniques Promises to Raise Efficacy and Minimize Quantity of Pesticides Applied.- 2.6 The Crop Protection Adviser.- 2.6.1 The Crop Protection Adviser in Public Employ: Tasks, Limitations, Contacts.- 2.6.1.1 Aims and Tasks of the Adviser.- 2.6.1.2 Non-Advisory Tasks Sometimes Imposed on the Crop Protection Adviser.- Advice vs. Policing and Policy.- Advice vs. Implementation.- 2.6.1.3 Allocation of Manpower in Crop Protection Advisory Work.- 2.6.1.4 All-Round Crop Protection Advice or Specialization by Disciplines?.- 2.6.1.5 A Plea for Better Economic Training for Crop Protection Advisers.- 2.6.1.6 Integration of Work of the Crop Protection Adviser and the Research Work.- Integration of Advisory and Research Work.- What the Adviser Requires from Research.- What the Research Staff Requires from Advisers.- Mutual Dependence of Advisory and Research Services.- 2.6.2 Pest and Disease Control Advice Given by Representatives of Pesticide Manufacturers.- 2.6.2.1 Background.- 2.6.2.2 Advisory Work in Countries With or Without Operative Pesticide Registration Schemes.- 2.6.2.3 Technical Information.- 2.6.2.4 Field Tests and Demonstrations.- 2.6.2.5 Current Advice and Timing of Pesticide Use.- 2.6.2.6 Commercial Advice.- 2.6.2.7 Outlook.- 3 How Crop Protection Advice Is Given in Various Countries: a Diversity of Objectives and Approaches.- 3.1 Crop Protection: The Role of the Agricultural Development and Advisory Service in England and Wales.- 3.1.1 The Agricultural Industry in England and Wales.- 3.1.2 The Agricultural Advisory Service.- The National Advisory Service.- The Present Structure of the Agricultural Development and Advisory Service.- 3.1.3 The Communication and Dissemination Pathways.- From Farmer to Adviser: the Communication Pathway.- From Adviser to Farmer: the Dissemination Pathway.- Communication: the Spoken Word.- Communication: the Written Word.- 3.1.4 Plant Clinics.- 3.1.5 Solving Problems.- 3.1.6 Specialized Branches and Services.- 3.1.7 Crop Protection by Legislation.- 3.1.8 Management of Crop Protection in ADAS.- 3.1.9 Grade Structure and Promotion Within ADAS.- 3.1.10 Crop Protection in ADAS, Its Strengths and Weaknesses.- 3.2 Advisory Work in Crop Protection in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG).- 3.2.1 Organization of Official Crop Protection Advisory Work in the FRG.- Structure.- Budgeting.- Facilities and Equipment.- Dissemination of Advice.- 3.2.2 Commercial Advice.- Structure and Budgeting.- Facilities and Equipment.- Dissemination of Advice.- 3.2.3 The Adviser.- The Number and Training of Advisers.- Specialization of Advisory Personnel.- The Range of Activities of Crop Protection Personnel.- Furthering the Adviser’s Professional Proficiency.- 3.2.4 Targets and Range of Current Advisory Work.- Targets, Target Groups and Modes of Operation.- The Range of Crop Protection Advice.- 3.2.5 Evaluation.- Are the Farmers Satisfied?.- What Can Be Improved?.- 3.3 Advice on Pest and Disease Control in Israel.- 3.3.1 Background.- 3.3.2 Availability of Auxiliary Services.- Plant Clinics.- Meteorological Service.- Monitoring of Field Scouting.- 3.3.3 The Crop Protection Adviser in the Extension Service’s Division of Crop Protection.- Organization.- The Senior Advisers.- Coordination of Group Activities and Publications.- The Regional Advisers.- 3.3.4 Planning the Work of the Regional Adviser.- 3.3.5 Evaluation and Prospective Improvements.- Some Recent Development in Crop Protection.- Specialization and Advancement of Regional Advisers.- Subjects to Be Integrated in the Activities of the Division of Crop Protection of the Advisory Service.- 3.4 Plant Protection Advisory Work in the University of California Cooperative Extension Office.- 3.4.1 Cooperative Extension Work in California.- 3.4.2 The Pest Management Program.- 3.4.3 Planning and Conducting Pest Management Programs.- The Process of Program Planning.- Educational Programs.- Monitoring and Evaluating Pest Problems.- Methods of Management.- Environmental and Economic Impact of Pest Management.- Special Projects.- 3.4.4 Availability of Auxiliary Services.- 3.4.5 Administrative Structure.- 3.4.6 Personnel and Resources.- 3.4.7 Summary.- 3.5 Dissemination of Pest Management Information in the Midwest, U.S.A..- 3.5.1 Sources of Information.- 3.5.2 Dissemination of Information by Public Agencies.- 3.5.3 Advice Disseminated by Suppliers and Consultants.- 3.6 Implementing a Statewide Pest Management Program for Texas, U.S.A..- 3.6.1 Introduction.- 3.6.2 A Statewide Pest Management Program for Texas.- 3.6.3 Farmers, Organizations, and IPM Program Involvement.- 3.6.4 Elements of the IPM Strategy in Texas.- 3.6.4.1 Variety Selection and Host Plant Resistance.- 3.6.4.2 Cultural Practices.- 3.6.4.3 Field Sampling and Economic Thresholds.- 3.6.4.4 Pest Models and Environmental Monitoring.- 3.6.4.5 Biological Control.- 3.6.4.6 Regulatory.- 3.6.5 Methods of IPM Program Information Delivery.- 3.6.6 Evaluating IPM Programs.- 3.6.7 The Role of the Private Consultant.- 3.6.8 Bridging Research and Extension Programs Within and Between Disciplines.- 3.7 Development of Crop Protection Advisory Work in Thailand Within the Framework of the “Training and Visit” Approach to Extension.- 3.7.1 Essential Features of the T & V Extension Approach.- Training.- Visits.- 3.7.2 Crop Protection in Thailand.- 3.7.3 Crop Protection Advice in the Framework of T & V.- Cotton Pest Scouting.- Plant Clinics.- Monitoring and Control of Pests in Fruit Crops.- 3.7.4 Interrelations Between Extension and Research: Past, Present and Future.- Pest Control Recommendations.- Coordinated Field Trials.- 3.7.5 A Final Word.- 3.8 Advice on Pest and Disease Management: a Diversity of Objectives and Approaches.- 3.8.1 Advanced Farm Economies.- Intensity of Advice as Related to Number and Specialization of Growers.- Growers’ Participation and the Target Groups of Advice.- University-Linked Compared with State-Run Services: Generation and Validation of Know-How.- 3.8.2 Farm Economies in Developing Countries.- Subsistence Farmers.- Individual Farmers Growing and Marketing Their Croups.- Farmers Growing Crops for Cooperative or Government Marketing.- Scope and Structure of Crop Protection Advice in Developing Farm Economies.- 3.8.3 Farm Economies at All Levels of Development: Subjects That Require Special Attention.- Determination of Treatment Thresholds.- Pesticide Application Techniques.- Biological Control of Pests and Pathogens.- Cultural Practices.- 3.8.4 The Crop Protection Adviser of the Future and His Aspirations.- Training.- Opportunity and Motivation.- Index of Pests, Pathogens and Beneficial Organisms.