Advances in Surgical and Medical Specialties: Advances in Surgical and Medical Specialties

ISBN-13: 9789814877459 / Angielski

Raj Bawa; Paul J. Davis; Jay K. Doshi

Opis

The pace and sophistication of advances in medicine in the past two decades have been truly breathtaking. This has necessitated a growing need for comprehensive references that highlight the current issues in specific sectors of medicine. Keeping this in mind, each volume in the Current Issues in Medicine series is a stand‐alone text that provides a broad survey of various critical topics in a focused area of medicine—all accomplished in a user-friendly yet interconnected format. However, unlike other series on medicine or medical texts, this series focuses on current trends, perspectives, and issues in medicine that are central to healthcare delivery in the 21st century. Medical practitioners today continue to improve upon techniques and technologies to provide procedures for patients that are safer, faster, less invasive, and more accurate —a direct consequence of advances in technological breakthroughs from a variety of medical and engineering fields. In order to render modern patient care, it is imperative that surgeons and medical practitioners stay current with these latest advances in their respective specialties. Given this backdrop, the specific topics covered in this volume and the expertise of the contributing authors accurately reflect the rapidly evolving areas within surgical and medical specialties. While recognising how expansive and multifaceted medicine is, Advances in Surgical and Medical Specialties addresses crucial recent advances in surgical and medical specialties, intergrating the knowledge and experience of experts from academia and practicing surgeons. The multidisciplinary approach reflected here makes this volume a valuable reference resource for medical practictioners, medical students, nurses, fellows, residents, undergraduate and graduate students, educators, venture capitalists, policymakers, and biomedical researchers. A wide audience will benefit from having this volume on their bookshelf: health care systems, the pharmaceutical industry, academia, and government.

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Corresponding Authors

Note from the Series Editor

1. Surgical and Medical Specialties: A Journey in Pictures

2. Lymph Nodes—The Neglected Battlefield in Tuberculosis

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Concluding Remarks

2.3 Methods

3. Chronic Kidney Disease in the United States, 2021

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

3.1 CKD Is Common Among US Adults

3.2 CKD by Age, Sex, and Race/Ethnicity

3.3 CKD Risk Factors

3.4 Ways to Prevent CKD

3.5 Treatment to Lower Blood Pressure

3.6 Testing and Treatment: Find It Early, Treat It Early

3.7 CKD Related Health Problems

3.8 People with CKD Can Lower Their Risk for Kidney Failure

4. Combatting Sepsis: A Public Health Perspective

4.1 National Trends in Sepsis Burden

4.2 Comprehensive Sepsis Prevention Framework

4.3 Building Partnerships and Increasing Awareness

4.4 Future Public Health Opportunities and Challenges

5. Hypertension and Atrial Fibrillation: Closing a Virtuous Circle

6. Cardiovascular Events after Community-Acquired Pneumonia:

A Global Perspective with Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of

Observational Studies

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Materials and Methods

6.3 Results

6.4 Discussion

6.5 Future Directions

7. Risk Factors for Recurrent Arterial Ischemic Stroke in Children and

Young Adults

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Review Methodology

7.3 Prevalence of AIS Recurrence

7.4 Risk Factors for Recurrent AIS in a Pediatric Population

7.5 Risk Factors for Recurrent AIS in Young Adults

7.6 Secondary Prevention of AIS

7.7 Conclusions

8. Cellular Mechanisms of Human Atherogenesis: Focus on Chronification

of Inflammation and Mitochondrial Mutations

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Cellular Mechanisms of Atherogenesis

8.3 Variants of the Nuclear Genome Associated with Atherosclerosis

8.4 Variants of Mitochondrial Genome Associated with

Atherosclerosis

8.5 Role of Mitochondrial Mutations in Cellular Mechanism of

Atherosclerosis; Chronification of Inflammation

8.6 Conclusions

9. The Microbiota of the Human Gut and Cardiometabolic Health

9.1 Introduction

9.2 The Microbiome

9.3 Major Metabolic Contributors to Microbiome Profile Identity

9.4 Dysbiosis and the Development of T2DM

9.5 Gut Microbiota and CVD

9.6 Concluding Remarks

10. Pharmaceutical Strategies for Reducing LDL-C and Risk of

Cardiovascular Disease

10.1 Introduction

10.2 The Importance of Potency in Statin Monotherapy

10.3 Alternative Strategies to Achieve LDL-C Goal

10.4 PCSK9, a New Therapeutic Target

10.5 Conclusion

11. Atherogenic Markers in Predicting Cardiovascular Risk and Targeting

Residual Cardiovascular Risk

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Markers of Atherogenic Risk

11.3 Residual Cardiovascular Risk

11.4 Conclusions

12. The Continuous Quest for More Effective and Safer

Thromboprophylaxis Protocols

12.1 Thrombosis: A Preventable Healthcare Burden

12.2 Implementation Strategies and Risk Stratification

12.3 Prophylaxis Options with Comparison of Their Efficacy and Risks

12.4 Screening Methods and Secondary Prophylaxis

12.5 New Horizons: Emerging Prophylaxis Methods, Screening

Strategies and Treatment Policies

12.6 Conclusion

13. Wound Healing: Cellular Mechanisms and Pathological Outcomes

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Cellular Aspects of Acute Wound Repair

13.3 When Healing Fails—Factors Influencing Chronic Wound

Healing

13.4 Translational Techniques to Enhance Clinical Understanding of

Wounds

13.5 Current Therapies and Future Opportunities

13.6 Conclusions

14. Advances in Cervical Cancer Prevention: Efficacy, Effectiveness,

Elimination?

14.1 Evolution of Human Papilloma Virus Vaccination

14.2 Prospects for Cervical Cancer Elimination

14.3 Opportunities and Challenges Posed by Resource Levels

14.4 Cervical Screening in the Presence of HPV Vaccination

14.5 Future Perspectives

15. Molecular Classification of Breast Cancer: A Retrospective Cohort

Study

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Materials and Methods

15.3 Results

15.4 Discussion

15.5 Conclusion

16. Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma: From Biology to Therapy

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Molecular Basis of CSCC

16.3 Treatment of CSCC

16.4 Pharmacologically Induced Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma

16.5 Conclusions

17. Brain and Testis: More Alike Than Previously Thought?

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Brain and Testis

17.3 Neuron and Sperm

17.4 Concluding Remarks

18. Myomatous Erythrocytosis Syndrome: A Case Series

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Results

18.3 Discussion

18.4 Conclusions

19. Vascular Involvements in Cholangiocarcinoma: Tips and Tricks

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Materials and Methods

19.3 Intrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma with Vascular Involvement

19.4 Perihilar Cholangiocarcinoma with Vascular Involvement

19.5 Conclusions

20. Rehabilitation for People Living with Dementia: A Practical

Framework of Positive Support

20.1 Why Is Rehabilitation Relevant?

20.2 How Can Cognitive Rehabilitation Benefit People with Dementia

and Carers?

20.3 Where Do Other Nonpharmacological Interventions Fit In?

20.4 How Could Services Adopt a Rehabilitation Model?

20.5 Why Should We Acknowledge the Right to Rehabilitation?

21. Are Dementia with Lewy Bodies and Parkinson’s Disease Dementia

the Same Disease?

21.1 Background

21.2 Conclusions

21.3 Future Perspectives

22. Regenerative Medicine: Could Parkinson’s Be the First

Neurodegenerative Disease to Be Cured?

22.1 Multiplication and Differentiation of NSCs

22.2 Production, Transplantation and Characterization of Precursor

DOP Aminergic Neurons

22.3 Rejection of Transplanted Cells

22.4 From Bench to Bed

22.5 Future Perspective

23. Changes in the Functional Brain Network of Children Undergoing

Repeated Epilepsy Surgery: An EEG Source Connectivity Study

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Materials and Methods

23.3 Results

23.4 Discussion

23.5 Conclusions

24. Blood–Brain Barrier Disruption in Atrial Fibrillation: A Potential

Contributor to the Increased Risk of Dementia and Worsening of

Stroke Outcomes

24.1 Introduction

24.2 The Structure and Function of the Blood–Brain Barrier

24.3 Mechanisms of Blood–Brain Barrier Disruption

24.4 Effects of Altered Cerebral Blood Flow on the Blood–Brain

Barrier

24.5 Disrupted Peripheral and Cerebral Blood Flow in Atrial

Fibrillation

24.6 What Are the Underlying Mechanisms that Increase the Risk

of Stroke and Dementia in Atrial Fibrillation?

24.7 Concluding Remarks

25. Trauma-Induced Coagulopathy: From Pathophysiology to

Outcomes—Overview of an Emerging Medical Problem

25.1 Introduction

25.2 Definition

25.3 Pathophysiology

25.4 Specials Clinical Forms of TIC

25.5 Diagnosis

25.6 Outcomes

25.7 Hints for Therapy

25.8 Management of Patients with Severe Trauma in an ER

26. Advances in Fractures and Dislocations of the Hip Joint

26.1 Hip Fractures

26.2 Traumatic Dislocations of the Hip Joint

27. Predicting Scoliosis Progression: A Challenge for Researchers and

Clinicians

28. Prosthetic and Mechanical Parameters of the Facial Bone under the

Load of Different Dental Implant Shapes: A Parametric Study

28.1 Introduction

28.2 Results

28.3 Discussion

28.4 Materials and Methods

28.5 Conclusions

29. Circulating Arsenic Is Associated with Long-Term Risk of Graft Failure

in Kidney Transplant Recipients: A Prospective Cohort Study

29.1 Introduction

29.2 Methods

29.3 Results

29.4 Discussion

29.5 Conclusions

30. Successful Aging and Chronic Osteoarthritis

Ray Marks, EdD

30.1 Introduction

30.2 Methods

30.3 Results

30.4 Discussion

30.5 Conclusions

30.6 Future Research and Practical Challenges

31. Radiographic Analysis on the Distortion of the Anatomy of First

Metatarsal Head in Dorsoplantar Projection

31.1 Introduction

31.2 Material and Methods

31.3 Results

31.4 Discussion

31.5 Conclusions

32. Clinical Aspects and Current Therapeutic Approaches for Fibrodysplasia

Ossificans Progressiva

32.1 Introduction

32.2 Epidemiology

32.3 Pathophysiology

32.4 Natural Clinical Course

32.5 Skeletal Malformations

32.6 Managements and Treatments

32.7 On-Going Clinical Trials for FOP

32.8 Conclusions

33. Comparison and Lessons Learned from Neglected Tropical Diseases

and Tuberculosis

33.1 Introduction

33.2 Underlying Burden of Disease

33.3 Influence of Poverty and Development

33.4 Neglect

33.5 Conclusions

34. Current Issues in Antibiotic Antimicrobial Resistance

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

34.1 About Antibiotic Resistance

34.2 Antibiotic Resistance Threatens Everyone

34.3 Brief History of Resistance and Antibiotics

34.4 Fighting Antibiotic Resistance

34.5 Antibiotic Resistance: 5 Things to Know

34.6 Antibiotic-Resistant Infections Threaten Modern Medicine

34.7 Examples of How Antibiotic Resistance Affects Humans, Animals

and the Environment

34.8 How Antibiotic Resistance Moves Directly Germ to Germ

34.9 Protect People and Animals, Combat Antibiotic Resistance:

Actions for Livestock and Poultry Producers

35. Ending AIDS as a Public Health Threat by 2030: Time to Reset Targets

for 2025

35.1 Introduction

35.2 The Process and Structures

35.3 Addressing the Key Challenges, Concerns, and Priorities

35.4 Conclusions

36. 9 Questions to Help Make Sense of Health Research

National Institutes of Health

37. Transdisciplinary Research and Clinical Priorities for Better Health

37.1 Lifestyle and Prevention of Chronic Diseases

37.2 Intergenerational and Life Course Consequences of

Preconception and in utero Health

37.3 Ecological Footprint of Modern Medical Systems

37.4 Intensive Animal Farming and Pollution

37.5 Benefits of Investing in Preventive Science, Education,

and Medicine

37.6 Conclusions and Future Directions

38. Current Issues about Health News Stories

National Institutes of Health

38.1 When Clinical Research is in the News

38.2 Health Approaches in the News

38.3 Information Missing from Health Stories

38.4 What’s Missing: Important Details!

38.5 What’s Missing: Information on Side Effects!

38.6 What’s Missing: The Full Story!

38.7 What’s Missing: Humans!

38.8 Conflicting Health News

38.9 Accuracy in the Media

38.10 What the Media Says about Complementary Health Approaches

38.11 Is It Real Online News? Or Just Advertising?

38.12 Checklist for Understanding Health News Stories

38.13 Remember…

38.14 Supplementary Information

39. Complementary, Alternative, or Integrative Health: What’s in

a Name?

National Institutes of Health

39.1 Complementary versus Alternative

39.2 Integrative Health

39.3 Complementary Health Approaches

40. Current Issues in Complementary and Integrative Health

National Institutes of Health

40.1 4 Things to Know about Dietary Supplements for Eye Conditions

40.2 5 Things to Know about Omega-3s for Heart Disease

40.3 6 Tips: How Herbs Can Interact with Medicines

40.4 7 Tips: What You Need to Know about Natural Products for

Musculoskeletal Inflammation

40.5 6 Things You Should Know: The Science of Chronic Pain and

Complementary Health Practices

40.6 4 Tips: Mind and Body Practices for Common Aging-Related

Conditions

40.7 6 Things You Need to Know about Cancer and Complementary

Health Approaches

40.8 5 Things to Know about Complementary Health Practices for

Cognitive Function, Dementia, and Alzheimer’s Disease

40.9 4 Tips: Asthma and Complementary Health Practices

40.10 10 Things to Know about the Science of Health

40.11 5 Things to Know about Relaxation Techniques for Stress

40.12 7 Things to Know about Complementary Approaches for

Fibromyalgia

40.13 5 Tips: Natural Products for the Flu and Colds: What Does the

Science Say?

40.14 5 Things You Should Know about Yoga

40.15 5 Things to Know about Chronic Low-Back Pain and

Complementary Health Practices

40.16 4 Things to Know about Spinal Manipulation for Low-Back Pain

40.17 7 Things to Know about Complementary Health Approaches for

Autism Spectrum Disorder

40.18 4 Tips: Start Talking with Your Health Care Providers about

Complementary Health Approaches

40.19 7 Things to Know about Omega-3 Fatty Acids

40.20 5 Tips: Natural Products Used for Common Aging-Related

Conditions

40.21 6 Things You Should Know about Dietary Supplements for

Osteoarthritis

40.22 7 Tips: Know the Facts about Supplements Marketed for Weight

Loss

40.23 5 Things to Know about Sleep Disorders and Complementary

Health Approaches

40.24 6 Things to Know about Complementary Health Approaches for

Seasonal Affective Disorder

40.25 5 Tips: What Consumers Need to Know about Dietary Supplements

40.26 5 Things to Know about St. John’s Wort and Depression

40.27 6 Things to Know about Massage Therapy for Health Purposes

40.28 7 Things to Know about Complementary Health Approaches for

ADHD

40.29 6 Things to Know about Type 2 Diabetes and Dietary Supplements

40.30 5 Tips: What You Should Know about Complementary Health

Approaches for BPH

40.31 8 Things to Know about Mind and Body Approaches for Health

Problems Facing Military Personnel and Veterans

40.32 5 Tips: What You Should Know about Tai Chi for Health

40.33 6 Things to Know about Complementary Health Approaches for

Seasonal Allergy Relief

40.34 7 Tips: What You Should Know about Complementary Health

Approaches for Multiple Sclerosis

40.35 7 Things to Know about Complementary Health Approaches for

Anxiety

40.36 6 Tips: What You Need to Know about Complementary Health

Approaches for Skin Conditions

40.37 5 Things to Know about Complementary Health Approaches for

Parkinson’s Disease

40.38 5 Myths about Popular Natural Products Marketed for Disease

Prevention and Wellness

40.39 7 Things to Know about Mind and Body Practices for Children

and Teens

40.40 6 Things to Know about Travel-Related Ailments and

Complementary Health Approaches

40.41 6 Tips: IBS and Complementary Health Practices

40.42 5 Things You Should Know about Dietary Supplements for

Hepatitis C

40.43 5 Things to Know about Probiotics

40.44 5 Things to Know about Mind and Body Approaches for

Substance Use Disorders

40.45 4 Things to Know about Menopausal Symptoms and

Complementary Health Practices

40.46 6 Things to Know When Selecting a Complementary Health

Practitioner

40.47 5 Tips: What You Should Know about Popular Herbs

40.48 8 Things to Know about Meditation for Health

40.49 6 Things to Know about Complementary Health Approaches for

Quitting Smoking

40.50 5 Tips: What You Should Know about High Blood Cholesterol

40.51 8 Things to Know about Depression and Complementary Health

Approaches

40.52 10 Things to Know about Dietary Supplements for Children and

Teens

40.53 4 Things To Know About Menopausal Symptoms and

Complementary Health Practices

40.54 Ayurvedic Medicine: In Depth

40.55 Terms Related to Complementary and Integrative Health

41. Skin Conditions and Complementary Health Approaches: What the

Science Says

National Institutes of Health

41.1 Atopic Dermatitis

41.2 Psoriasis

41.3 Acne

41.4 Impetigo

41.5 Rosacea

42. Nutrition and Health across the Lifespan: Guidelines and

Recommendations

U.S. Department of Agriculture

42.1 Guideline 1: Follow a Healthy Dietary Pattern at Every Life Stage

42.2 Guideline 2: Customize and Enjoy Food and Beverage Choices

to Reflect Personal Preferences, Cultural Traditions, and

Budgetary Considerations

42.3 Guideline 3: Focus on Meeting Food Group Needs With

Nutrient-Dense Foods and Beverages, and Stay Within Calorie

Limits

42.4 Guideline 4: Limit Foods and Beverages Higher in Added Sugars,

Saturated Fat, and Sodium, and Limit Alcoholic Beverages

42.5 Support Healthy Dietary Patterns for All Americans

43. Using Dietary Supplements Wisely

National Institutes of Health

43.1 What’s the Bottom Line?

43.2 What Are Dietary Supplements?

43.3 What Are Herbal Supplements?

43.4 Dietary Supplement Use in the United States

43.5 Federal Regulation of Dietary Supplements

43.6 What the Science Says about the Effectiveness of Dietary

Supplements

43.7 What the Science Says about the Safety and Side Effects of

Dietary Supplements

43.8 Safety Considerations

44. Association of Genetic Liability to Smoking Initiation with e-Cigarette

Use in Young Adults: A Cohort Study

44.1 Introduction

44.2 Results

44.3 Discussion

45. Current Issues in Vaccine Development

45.1 Vaccine Development: An Introductory Overview

45.2 How Vaccines Work

45.3 Vaccine Development

45.4 Improving Vaccine R&D

45.5 Technologies and Approaches for Vaccine R&D

45.6 Addressing Challenges Related to Vaccine R&D: Policy Options

45.7 Technologies and Approaches That May Enhance Vaccine Testing

45.8 Challenges Related to Vaccine Testing: Policy Options

45.9 Technologies and Approaches for Vaccine Manufacturing

45.10 Challenges Related to Vaccine Manufacturing: Policy Options

45.11 Vaccine Development: Economics and Role of Incentives

45.12 Economic Challenges to Vaccine Development: Policy Options

46. Cannabis Products Containing Delta-8 Tetrahydrocannabinol:

Increased Availability and Reports of Adverse Events

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

46.1 Introduction

46.2 Background

46.3 Recommendations for the Public and Consumers

46.4 Recommendations for Public Health Departments and Poison

Control Centers, Including Those in Locations Where Laws Only

Permit Hemp Marketplaces

46.5 Recommendations for Retailers Selling Cannabis Products 1013

46.6 Recommendations for Healthcare Providers

46.7 For More Information

47. Natural Doesn’t Necessarily Mean Safer, or Better

National Institutes of Health

48. How Medications and Supplements Can Interact

National Institutes of Health

48.1 Test Your Knowledge: Are These Statements True or False?

48.2 Talk With Your Health Care Providers

48.3 Some Supplements May Increase the Effects—and Side

Effects—of Drugs

48.4 Some Supplements May Decrease the Effects of Drugs

48.5 More about St. John’s Wort

48.6 Interactions with Over-the-Counter Drugs

48.7 When Drug-Supplement Interactions Are Especially Important

48.8 Drugs with a Narrow Therapeutic Range

48.9 If You’re Going to Have Surgery

48.10 Tips on Reading Supplement Labels

48.11 Here’s a Hint for Your Next Visit to a Health Care Provider

49. Antioxidants: Current Issues and Future Trends

National Institutes of Health

49.1 Introduction

49.2 Key Points

49.3 About Free Radicals, Oxidative Stress, and Antioxidants

49.4 Use of Antioxidant Supplements in the United States

49.5 Safety

49.6 What the Science Says

49.7 If You Are Considering Antioxidant Supplements

49.8 NCCIH- and NIH-Funded Research

49.9 For More Information

50. Hearing Loss and Hearing Aids: Current Issues

50.1 What Is Hearing Loss?

50.2 What Noises Cause Hearing Loss?

50.3 How Does Loud Noise Cause Hearing Loss?

50.4 What Is Noise-Induced Hearing Loss?

50.5 How Can I Tell If I Have a Hearing Problem?

50.6 Who Can I Turn to for Help with My Hearing Loss?

50.7 Why Am I Losing My Hearing?

50.8 What Is an Audiogram?

50.9 What Treatments and Devices Can Help?

50.10 Hearing Aids: More Details

50.11 What Are Some Features for Hearing Aids?

50.12 Hearing Aids and How They Work

50.13 Are There Different Styles of Hearing Aids?

50.14 Are New Types of Aids Available?

50.15 What Is the Difference between Analog and Digital Hearing Aids?

50.16 Which Hearing Aid Will Work Best for Me?

50.17 How Do I Get a Hearing Evaluation before Getting Hearing Aids?

50.18 What Is the Difference between Prescription and Over-the

Counter Hearing Aids?

50.19 Who Are OTC Hearing Aids for?

50.20 What Questions Should I Ask before Buying a Hearing Aid?

50.21 How Can I Adjust to My Hearing Aid?

50.22 How Can I Care for My Hearing Aid? 1075

50.23 Can I Obtain Financial Assistance for a Hearing Aid?

50.24 Hearing Aids vs. Personal Sound Amplification Products

51. Bacterial Evolution during Human Infection: Adapt and Live or Adapt

and Die

51.1 Introduction

51.2 Conclusions

52. Roadblocks in Chagas Disease Care in Endemic and Nonendemic

Countries: Argentina, Colombia, Spain, and the United States.

The NET-Heart Project

52.1 Introduction

52.2 Methods

52.3 Results

52.4 Discussion

52.5 Conclusions

53. Pathogens Infecting the Central Nervous System

54. Current Issues in Vaccines

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

54.1 History of Vaccines

54.2 Common Ingredients in U.S. Licensed Vaccines

54.3 Understanding the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System

54.4 Science Summary: CDC Studies on Thimerosal in Vaccines

54.5 Pregnancy and Vaccination

54.6 Understanding Thimerosal, Mercury, and Vaccine Safety

54.7 2022 Recommended Immunizations for Children from Birth

through 6 Years Old

54.8 2022 Recommended Immunizations for Children 7–18 Years

54.9 Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years

or Older

55. What Are Embryonic Stem Cells and How Can They Help Us?

55.1 It All Begins in Fertilization, When the Sperm Meets the Egg

55.2 Cloning

55.3 Therapeutic Cloning

55.4 Reprogramming

55.5 Therapy?

55.6 Addendum by the Series Editor, Dr. Raj Bawa: The Future of

Embryonic Stem Cells

56. The Rise and Rise of Mitochondrial DNA Mutations

56.1 Evolutionary Aspects of Mitochondrial Genetics

56.2 Clonal Expansion of mtDNA Mutations

56.3 Population Dynamics of mtDNA Point Mutations

56.4 Population Dynamics of mtDNA Deletions

56.5 Important Challenges and Unanswered Questions

56.6 Modelling Clonal Expansion

56.7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives

57. Hallmarks of Cancer—the New Testament

57.1 A Historical Perspective on Cancer

57.2 Hallmarks of Cancer

57.3 New Hallmark 1: Dedifferentiation and Transdifferentiation

57.4 New Hallmark 2: Epigenetic Dysregulation

57.5 New Hallmark 3: Altered Microbiome

57.6 New Hallmark 4: Altered Neuronal Signalling

57.7 Conclusion

58. Adipose Tissue in Health and Disease

58.1 Introduction

58.2 Adipose Tissue Expansion and Development

58.3 Inflammation

58.4 Location of Lipid Storage

58.5 Adipose Tissue Lipolysis and Insulin Resistance

58.6 Endocrine Functions within Adipose Tissue

58.7 Emerging Approaches to Combat Adipose Tissue-Derived

Metabolic Dysfunction

58.8 Concluding Remarks

59. Viral Pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Male Reproductive

Health

59.1 Introduction

59.2 SARS-CoV-2: History, Origin and Transmission

59.3 Possible Mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 Invasion into Host Cells and

Immune Pattern of Infection

59.4 Effect on the Male Reproductive System

59.5 SARS-CoV-2 and Male Fertility

59.6 Gender-Based Susceptibility

59.7 Conclusion

59.8 Future Perspectives

60. Elevated CO2 Modulates Airway Contractility

60.1 Introduction

60.2 Hypercapnia-Induced Bronchoconstriction

60.3 Respiratory Acidosis-Related Bronchodilation

60.4 Effect of Hypocapnia on Airway Contractility

60.5 Conclusion

Index