A Handbook for the Sustainable Use of Timber in Construction

ISBN-13: 9781119701095 / Angielski / Twarda / 2020 / 416 str.

Jim Coulson

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Preface xiiiPart One How Timber Works: Wood as a Material - Its Main Processes and Uses 11 Wood as a Material 31.1 Tree growth and wood formation 51.2 Cellulose, carbon dioxide, and oxygen 71.3 The essential cell structure of wood 91.4 Wood grain 111.5 Dimensional changes in wood 151.6 Cambium, pith, heartwood, and sapwood 171.7 Natural durability 201.8 Permeability in timber 211.9 Pits 241.10 Chapter summary 262 More on Wood - With Some Comments about Timber Trading 292.1 Should we call it 'wood' or 'timber' (or even 'lumber')? 292.2 Wood species and timber trading 302.3 Softwoods and hardwoods 302.4 Some more information on wood's cell structure 332.5 The significance of 'trade names' versus 'scientific names' 382.6 Growth rings 422.7 Earlywood and latewood 432.8 Rate of growth in softwoods 432.9 Rate of growth in hardwoods 452.10 Chapter summary 483 Two Fundamental Factors in Using Wood: Fire and Water 493.1 Wood and fire 493.2 Wood and moisture 543.3 Kiln drying 663.4 Air drying 693.5 Problems with timber as it dries 723.6 Timescales for drying timber 793.7 Chapter summary 814 Specifying Timber: For Indoor or Outdoor Uses - With Some Information on the Biological Attack of Wood 834.1 British and European standards 834.2 Durability and treatability of different wood species 844.3 Use classes 854.4 Examples of the use of timbers in different use class situations 864.5 Hazard and risk - and their relative importance 874.6 Use class 1: examples 874.7 Insects that can attack wood 914.8 Treatment against insect attack 944.9 Use class 2: examples 954.10 Use class 3: examples 974.11 Use class 4: examples 1024.12 Wet rot and 'dry rot' 1074.13 Modified wood 1094.14 Use class 5: examples - plus two marine organisms which can eat wood 1104.15 Chapter summary 1125 Wood Preservatives and Wood Finishes 1155.1 Rule number one: treat the timber last! 1155.2 Wood preservative types 1175.3 'Old' and 'new' treatments 1175.4 Basic methods of timber treatment 1175.5 Preservative chemicals 1205.6 'Treated' timber 1235.7 Chapter summary 1316 Timber Quality: Defects in Wood and Grading for Appearance 1336.1 The need for grading 1346.2 'Quality' or 'grade'? 1356.3 Quality 1366.4 Grade 1376.5 Different types of grading 1376.6 'Appearance' grading 1376.7 Appearance grading based on selection by inherent defects 1386.8 Scandinavian appearance grades 1416.9 Unsorted, fifths, and sixths 1436.10 Russian appearance grades 1446.11 Saw falling 1456.12 European appearance grades 1456.13 North American appearance grades 1466.14 Clears, merchantable, and commons 1486.15 A comparison of Scandinavian and North American grades 1496.16 Appearance grading based on 'cuttings' 1496.17 NHLA grades 1506.18 Malaysian grades 1546.19 Rules are made to be bent (within reason!) 1576.20 Shipper's usual 1576.21 J classes 1586.22 Exposed face 1596.23 Chapter summary 1607 Strength Grading and Strength Classes 1637.1 Appearance versus strength 1667.2 Visual strength grades 1667.3 GS and SS strength grades 1677.4 Strength classes for softwoods 1687.5 BS EN 1912 1687.6 SC3, SC4: C16 and C24 1697.7 Machine grading 1717.8 Other strength grades: Europe and North America 1727.9 Select structural, no. 1 and no. 2 structural, and stud grades 1727.10 TR26 1737.11 CLS 1757.12 Specifying a strength class or wood species: things to think about 1767.13 Hardwood strength grading 1777.14 Tropical hardwoods 1787.15 Temperate hardwoods 1787.16 The 'size effect' 1797.17 Hardwood strength classes 1807.18 Marking of strength-graded timber 1817.19 Chapter summary 1838 Wood-Based Sheet Materials 1858.1 Plywood construction 1868.2 Two fundamental properties of plywood 1868.3 The basic types of plywood 1888.4 Problems with veneer 'layup' 1928.5 'WBP' 1928.6 Exterior 1948.7 EN 636 plywood types 1948.8 Adhesives used in plywood 1958.9 BS 1088 marine plywood 1968.10 Plywood glue bond testing 1978.11 Plywood face quality 1998.12 Appearance grading of face veneers 1998.13 Plywood certification 2028.14 Particleboards 2058.15 Fibreboards 2088.16 Chapter summary 2129 Principles of Timber Engineering (by Iain Thew) 2159.1 Timber as an 'engineering material' 2169.2 Loads: their actions on structures 2179.3 Load transfer 2189.4 Bending, compression, and tension stresses 2189.5 The use of strength classes 2209.6 Load duration and its significance 2229.7 Effects of timber moisture content on engineering properties 2239.8 Load sharing 2249.9 Deflection and 'creep' 2249.10 Trussed rafters 2259.11 'Engineered timber' joists 2269.12 Glulam and LVL 2279.13 Cross-laminated timber 2299.14 Chapter summary 230Part Two Using Timber and Wood-Based Products in Legal and Sustainable Way 23110 Some Things You Should Know About Wood, Trees, and Forests 23310.1 Some very basic comments on how trees grow 23310.2 How long can trees live for - and how 'old' is an old tree? 23510.3 The properties of different timbers 23610.4 Distribution of tree types 23610.5 Natural forests 23810.6 Managed forests: conifers 24210.7 Managed forests: broadleaved trees 24510.8 Plantations: both softwoods and hardwoods 24710.9 Planting trees to help with climate change 25311 The Concept of 'Sustainability' 25511.1 Being sustainable: a definition - and a target 25511.2 What can we do to help? 25811.3 Should we be cutting down trees? 25911.4 Using the forest resource: the economic argument 26211.5 Legal harvesting 26311.6 The UK Timber Trade Federation and its 'responsible purchasing policy' 26512 Voluntary Timber Certification Schemes 26912.1 Some more details about the RPP 26912.2 Checking legality I: the Corruption Perceptions Index 27112.3 Checking legality II: FLEGT 27512.4 Checking legality III: MYTLAS 27712.5 Checking legality IV: other 'legality' certification schemes 27812.6 Checking sustainability: chain-of-custody certification 28012.7 UKWAS 28612.8 Third-party assurance 28712.9 How chain-of-custody schemes operate 28713 UK Government, EU, and Other Countries' Regulations: Legally Trading in World Timbers 28913.1 Checking up on the checkers: CPET and beyond 28913.2 Help with legality and sustainability requirements in a UK context 29013.3 The UK government's requirements for TPP 29013.4 Category A and category B: 'proof of compliance' 29113.5 Current and future supplies of certified timber 29313.6 The EUTR: Europe's compulsory 'timber legality scheme' 29413.7 Due Diligence 29413.8 How to Satisfy the EUTR (or now, in the UK, the UKTR) 29513.9 Putting together a due diligence system 29713.10 Maintaining a due diligence system 29813.11 'First placer on the market' 29913.12 CE marking and the CPR 30013.13 CITES: what exactly is It? 30114 Softwoods Used in Construction - With Their Main Properties and Sustainability Credentials 30714.1 European redwood, or scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) 30814.2 European whitewood (principally Picea abies) 31014.3 Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) 31114.4 Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) 31214.5 'Douglas fir' (Pseudotsuga menziesii) 31314.6 Larch (mainly Larix decidua and Larix kaempferi/Larix leptolepis) 31414.7 'Western red cedar' (Thuja plicata) 31514.8 Southern pine (Pinus spp., principally Pinus elliottii, Pinus echinata, Pinus palustris, and Pinus taeda) 31614.9 Yellow pine (Pinus strobus) 31714.10 Species groups 31815 Some Hardwoods Used in Construction - With Their Main Properties and Sustainability Credentials 32115.1 'Vulnerable' timbers 32215.2 Timber names: a bit more information 32315.3 Ash, American (Fraxinus spp.) 32415.4 Ash, European (Fraxinus excelsior) 32615.5 Ayan (Distemonanthus benthamianus) 32615.6 Basralocus (Dicorynia guianensis or Dicorynia paraensis) 32815.7 Beech, European (Fagus sylvatica) 32815.8 Bilinga 32915.9 Birch, European (mainly Betula pubescens, sometimes Betula pendula) 32915.10 Cherry, American (Prunus serotina) 33015.11 Chestnut, sweet (Castanea sativa) 33015.12 Cupiuba 33115.13 Ekki (Lophira alata) 33115.14 Eucalyptus 33215.15 Eveuss (Klainedoxa gabonensis) 33215.16 Gedu nohor (Entandrophragma angolense) 33215.17 Greenheart (Chlorocardium rodiei; formerly Ocotea rodaiei) 33215.18 Guariuba (Clarisia racemosa) 33315.19 Idigbo (Terminalia ivorensis) 33315.20 Iroko (Milicia excelsa) 33415.21 Kabukalli (Goupia glabra) 33415.22 Kapur (Dryobalanops spp.) 33515.23 Keruing (Dipterocarpus spp.) 33515.24 Kosipo (Entandrophragma candollei) 33615.25 Mahogany, African (principally Khaya ivorensis and Khaya anthotheca) 33715.26 Mahogany, Central American (Swietenia macrophylla) 33715.27 Maple (Acer saccharum) 33815.28 Majau (Shorea spp.) 33815.29 Massaranduba (Manilkara spp.) 33815.30 Meranti (Shorea spp.) 33915.31 Merbau (Intsia bijuga) 34015.32 Missanda (Erythrophleum guineense and Erythrophleum ivorense) 34015.33 Movingui 34115.34 Oak, American red (principally Quercus rubra and Quercus falcata) 34115.35 Oak, American white (principally Quercus alba and Quercus prinus, but also Quercus lyrata and Quercus michauxii) 34115.36 Oak, European (mainly Quercus robur, but also Quercus petraea) 34215.37 Obeche (Triplochiton scleroxylon) 34315.38 Omu 34315.39 Opepe (Nauclea diderrichii) 34315.40 Padauk (Pterocarpus soyauxii) 34415.41 'Red grandis' (really Eucalyptus grandis) 34415.42 Sapele (Entandrophragma cylindricum) 34515.43 Tatajuba (Bagassa guianensis) 34615.44 Teak (Tectona grandis) 34615.45 Tali 34715.46 Tiama 34715.47 Tulipwod 34715.48 Utile (Entandrophragma utile) 34715.49 Walnut, American (Juglans nigra) 34815.50 Walnut, European (Juglans regia) 34815.51 Whitewood, American or tulipwood (Liriodendron tulipifera) 34916 The Use and Reuse of Timber and Wood-Based Products: The Carbon Cycle, End-of-Life Disposal, and Using Wood as Biomass 35116.1 Should we 'save' all the trees? 35116.2 The true 'carbon cycle' 35216.3 End-of-life disposal of timber and wood-based products 35316.4 Recycled timber 35416.5 Disposal of timber in landfill 35516.6 Burning wood: fossil fuels versus biomass 35616.7 Biomass 35717 Energy Considerations: Other Construction Materials Compared with Wood 36117.1 Embodied energy 36217.2 Cradle-to-grave analysis 36417.3 Cradle to cradle: or the 'circular economy' 36617.4 BREEAM 36617.5 Assessment criteria 36717.6 Contribution of timber to 'sustainable building' 36817.7 The overall cost of being 'sustainable' 370Appendix A A Glossary of Wood and Timber Terms Used in the Timber and Construction Industries 371Appendix B A Select Bibliography of Some Useful Technical Reference Works, Plus Some Other Information on Timber and Wood-Based Products 385Appendix C Some Helpful Technical, Advisory, and Trade Bodies Concerned with Timber 387Index 389

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JIM COULSON is a Past President of the Institute of Wood Science, a Fellow of the Institute of Materials Minerals and Mining (IOM3), a Fellow of the Faculty of Building and a Chartered Environmentalist. He is a member of the Board of the Wood Technology Society (part of IOM3), a member of the UK Timber Grading Committee and a member of two BSI Committees concerned with Structural Uses for Wood-Based Materials and the Sustainability of Construction Works. He is also a member of the International Research Group on Wood Protection and a member of the ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites) International Wood Committee. He has an encyclopedic knowledge of the uses of timber and wood-based products in both historic and present-day construction. He has been a Visiting Lecturer to Schools of Architecture and Engineering at Newcastle and Durham Universities, as well as Leeds College of Building. He is founder of TFT Woodexperts Limited - a consultancy practice dealing with all technical aspects of timber and wood-based materials, their processing and uses. He also sets cryptic crossword puzzles for The Times, The Daily Telegraph, the Sunday Telegraph and Materials World (the House Magazine of IOM3).IAIN THEW is a structural engineer, with a particular interest in the use of wood in construction. He studied Structural Engineering with Architecture at The University of Edinburgh, gaining a Masters degree in Engineering. He is secretary of the Wood Technology Society, a Materials Division of the IOM3 and sits on the B/518 BSI Committee on Structural Timber. He is also a Chartered Member of the Institution of Structural Engineers and a qualified timber grader. He works for Structural & Civil Consulting Ltd, a consultancy which specialises in wood in construction and historic buildings, and has worked on projects as varied as the Rievaulx Abbey Visitor Centre and the Castle Howard Palladian Dome.