Physics of Matter

ISBN-13: 9781119468585 / Angielski

UK) King George C. (University of Manchester

Spis treści

Editors' preface to the Manchester Physics Series xvAuthor's preface xvii1 Atoms, the constituents of matter 11.1 The mass of an atom 11.1.1 Atomic masses 41.2 The size of an atom 61.2.1 Scanning probe microscopy 71.3 Atomic structure 111.3.1 The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom 121.3.2 The Schrodinger equation 171.3.3 The Schrodinger equation and the hydrogen atom 251.3.4 Multi-electron atoms 36Problems 1 412 The forces that bind atoms together 432.1 General characteristics of interatomic forces 432.1.1 The range of a force 442.1.2 Repulsive and attractive forces 442.1.3 Oscillations about the equilibrium separation 462.2 Interatomic potential energy 472.2.1 The Lennard-Jones 6-12 potential 482.3 Types of interatomic bonding 512.3.1 van der Waals bonding 512.3.2 Repulsive forces between atoms 542.3.3 Binding energy and latent heat 542.3.4 Ionic bonding 552.3.5 The Madelung constant and the Lattice energy 562.3.6 Covalent bonding 592.3.7 Vibrational motion of a diatomic molecule 612.3.8 Metallic bonding 642.4 Why gases, liquids, and solids 65Problems 2 673 Thermal energy of atoms and molecules 693.1 Temperature and the translational kinetic energy of a molecule 693.1.1 The ideal gas equation 713.2 Probability distributions and mean values 723.2.1 The normal or Gaussian distribution 783.3 The Maxwell-Boltzmann speed distribution 803.3.1 The kinetic energy distribution 843.4 Boltzmann's law 863.4.1 General form of Boltzmann's law 863.4.2 The probability distribution for a single component of molecular velocity 873.4.3 Doppler broadening of spectral lines 893.5 The isothermal atmosphere 913.5.1 Potential energy distribution of the molecules 923.5.2 Velocity distribution of the molecules 943.6 Derivation of the Maxwell-Boltzmann speed distribution 963.6.1 Two-dimensional gas 963.6.2 Three-dimensional gas 993.7 Equipartition of energy 1003.7.1 Rotational motion of a diatomic molecule 1003.7.2 Vibrational motion of a diatomic molecule 1023.7.3 The equipartition theorem applied to macroscopic bodies 1043.8 Specific heats of gases 1063.8.1 C V , Specific Heat of One Mole of An Ideal Gas at Constant Volume 1073.8.2 c P , specific heat of one mole of an ideal gas at constant pressure 1083.8.3 Ratio of specific heats gamma 1083.8.4 The breakdown of the classical theory 1083.8.5 Boltzmann's law and discrete energy levels 110Problems 3 1124 Kinetic theory of gases: transport processes 1174.1 Kinetic theory of gases 1174.2 Molecular collisions and the mean free path 1184.3 The distribution of free paths 1224.4 Diffusion 1254.4.1 Fink's law of diffusion 1254.4.2 Taylor's theorem 1284.4.3 The diffusion equation 1284.4.4 The kinetic theory of diffusion 1324.5 Thermal conduction 1344.5.1 Predictions for the thermal conductivity 1364.5.2 The heat equation 1374.6 Viscosity 1404.6.1 Predictions for the coefficient of viscosity 1424.7 Comparison of transport properties 1424.7.1 Estimation of Avogadro's number 1434.8 Effusion 1444.8.1 Isotope separation 1464.9 The random walk 1494.9.1 Probability distribution P[x]dx for displacement of the particle 1524.9.2 The random walk and molecular diffusion 153Problems 4 1555 Real gases 1575.1 The van der Waals equation 1585.1.1 The finite size of molecules 1605.1.2 The intermolecular force of attraction 1615.2 P-V isotherms for a real gas 1635.2.1 the Critical Points, T C , P C , and V C 1655.3 The virial equation 1665.3.1 Relationship between the van der Waals constants a and b and the virial coefficients B and c 1685.4 Internal energy and specific heats of a van der Waals gas 1695.4.1 The molar specific heats at constant volume and constant pressure 1705.5 Phase diagrams 171Problems 5 1756 The First Law of Thermodynamics 1776.1 Thermodynamic equilibrium 1786.1.1 The equation of state 1796.2 Temperature 1806.2.1 The zeroth law of thermodynamics 1816.2.2 The measurement of temperature 1816.2.3 Definition of the kelvin 1846.3 Heat 1856.3.1 The measurement of heat 1856.4 Internal energy 1866.4.1 Internal energy; a function of state 1876.4.2 Internal energy of an ideal gas 1876.5 Work and Joule's paddle wheel experiment 1886.6 First law of thermodynamics 1916.6.1 Paths between thermodynamic states 1916.6.2 Thermodynamic definitions of internal energy and heat 1936.7 Work done during volume changes 1946.8 Reversible processes 1966.8.1 Quasistatic processes 1976.8.2 Idealised reversible process 1976.8.3 The effect of frictional forces 1996.8.4 Practical realization of a reversible process 2006.9 Expansion of gases and the first law of thermodynamics 2026.10 The Joule effect; the free expansion of an ideal gas 2036.11 Molar specific heats of an ideal gas 2056.11.1 Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume, C V 2056.11.2 the Difference in Molar Specific Heats, C P C V 2066.11.3 Reversible adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas 2076.12 Enthalpy 2106.12.1 Specific heat at constant pressure, C P 2116.13 The Joule-Kelvin effect 2126.13.1 Joule-Kelvin effect and intermolecular forces 2166.14 Thermochemistry 2176.14.1 The enthalpy of vaporization 2186.14.2 Heats of reaction 218Problems 6 2197 The second law of thermodynamics 2237.1 Introduction 2237.2 Heat engines 2247.2.1 The steam turbine 2257.2.2 Refrigerators and heat pumps 2277.3 The Carnot cycle 2297.3.1 Stages of the Carnot cycle 2307.3.2 Thermal efficiency of a Carnot engine 2327.3.3 The Kelvin or absolute temperature scale 2347.4 Entropy 2357.4.1 The measurement of changes in entropy 2367.4.2 Entropy as a state function 2377.5 Entropy changes in reversible processes 2387.5.1 Reversible processes in an ideal gas 2387.5.2 Water and ice mixture 2387.5.3 The Carnot cycle 2397.6 Entropy changes in irreversible processes 2417.6.1 Free expansion of an ideal gas 2427.6.2 Temperature equalisation 2427.6.3 Heating water 2437.7 Entropy and the second law 2457.8 The fundamental thermodynamic relationship 2467.9 Phase changes and the Clausius-Clapeyron equation 2477.10 Gibbs free energy 2527.10.1 Physical interpretation of Gibbs free energy 2527.10.2 The example of a lead acid battery 2537.10.3 Gibbs free energy and spontaneous processes 2547.11 Thermodynamic identities 2557.11.1 Maxwell's relations 2577.12 A statistical approach to the second law of thermodynamics 2597.12.1 Permutations and combinations 2607.12.2 Probability and entropy; Boltzmann's equation 265Problems 7 2688 Solids 2718.1 Types of solids 2718.2 Crystal structure 2738.2.1 Close packing of atoms in a crystal 2738.2.2 Some common crystal structures 2758.2.3 Ionic crystals 2788.3 The crystal lattice, unit cell, and basis 2828.3.1 Types of crystal lattice and the unit cell 2838.3.2 The basis 2868.3.3 Graphene 2878.3.4 The three-dimensional lattice 2888.4 X-ray crystallography 2908.4.1 The Bragg law 2918.4.2 Crystal planes 2928.5 Experimental techniques of X-ray crystallography 2948.5.1 X-ray sources 2958.5.2 Collection and analysis of diffraction patterns 2988.6 Neutron scattering 2988.7 Interatomic forces in solids 2998.7.1 Heat of sublimation 2998.7.2 Surface energy of a crystal 3008.8 Vibrations in crystals 3018.8.1 Thermal expansion 305Problems 8 3069 The elastic properties of solids 3099.1 Stress, strain, and elastic moduli 3099.1.1 Tensile and compressional stress and strain 3109.1.2 Strength of solid materials 3129.1.3 Shear stress and strain 3139.1.4 Bulk stress and strain 3149.2 Poisson's ratio 3159.3 The velocity of sound in a thin wire 3209.4 Torsional stress and strain 3229.5 Elastic moduli and interatomic forces and potential energies 3259.5.1 Young's modulus 3279.5.2 Bulk modulus 3309.6 The inelastic behaviour of solids 3329.6.1 Slip 334Problems 9 33610 Thermal and transport properties of solids 33910.1 Molar specific heats of solids 33910.1.1 The Einstein model 34110.1.2 The Debye model 34610.2 Thermal conductivity of solids 35010.3 Diffusion in solids 35310.3.1 The diffusion coefficient 35410.4 Electrical and thermal conductivities of metals 35610.4.1 Thermal conductivity of metals 35910.4.2 Successes and failures of the classical free electron model 360Problems 10 36011 Liquids 36311.1 The structure of liquids 36311.1.1 The radial distribution function 36411.2 Physical properties of liquids 36611.2.1 Latent heats of vapourisation and fusion 36611.2.2 Vapour pressure 36611.2.3 Surface energy and surface tension 36911.2.4 Capillarity 37011.2.5 Diffusion 37311.3 The flow of liquids 37411.3.1 The continuity equation 37511.3.2 Bernoulli's equation 37611.4 The flow of real liquids 38011.4.1 Viscosity of liquids 38011.4.2 Viscous flow through a pipe 381Problems 11 38312 Liquid crystals 38712.1 Liquid crystal phases 38812.2 Thermotropic liquid crystal phases 38912.2.1 Nematic phase 39012.2.2 Smectic phase 39112.2.3 Chiral liquid crystal phases 39212.2.4 Molecular order and temperature 39412.2.5 Molecular structure of liquid crystals 39512.3 Polarised light 39612.4 Optical properties of liquid crystals 40212.4.1 Birefringence 40212.4.2 Selective reflection 40512.4.3 Waveguide regime 40712.4.4 Optical polarising microscopy 40912.5 Liquid crystal displays 41012.5.1 Reorientation of liquid crystals in an electric field 41012.5.2 The twisted nematic liquid crystal display 41112.6 Liquid crystals in nature 415Problems 12 415Solutions to problems 417Index 437

O autorze

George C. King is Emeritus Professor of Physics in the School of Physics & Astronomy at the University of Manchester and Fellow of the Institute of Physics. His research interests are the study of atoms and molecules using synchrotron radiation and electron impact excitation, and he is the author of over 200 published papers describing these studies. He has over 40 years teaching experience that includes lecturing a wide range of undergraduate and postgraduate courses.