Surfactants in Consumer Products: Theory, Technology and Application

ISBN-13: 9783642715471 / Angielski / Miękka / 2011 / 548 str.

J. Rgen Falbe

Opis

In to days market, custom formulated surfactants are offered for a wide range of applications. The need for surfactants in detergents, cleaning agents, cosmetics & toiletries is second only to an expanding demand in industrial applications. But even within the non-industrial areas the demands have undergone significant changes in recent years. For example, washing and cleaning temperatures have substantially decreased with increased energy conservation attitudes, and more stringent regulatory requirements in the area of ecology and toxicology are leading to new product profiles. New manufacturing technologies and an increased utilization of natural raw materials also factor into this continuing evolution. These changes and trends have been described in numerous publications. However, a summary and survey of these developments is currently missing. The book presented here "Surfactants in Consumer Products" is intended to close this gap. The editor and authors dedicate this work to Dr. Dr. h.c. Konrad Henkel on the occasion of his 70th birthday. Dr. Henkel, himself a scientist and industrialist, contributed signifi cantly to developments in the surfactant field. In the nineteen-fifties, he initiated the change from soap based detergents to synthetic detergents within Henkel. At the same time, dishwashing detergents utilizing various synthetic surfactants were also developed, and became the basis for modem manual and mechanical dishwashing."

Spis treści

1 Historical Review.- 2 Structure and Application of Surfactants.- 2.1 Surfactant Structure and Classification.- 2.2 Application of Surfactants.- 2.2.1 Consumer Products.- Detergents.- Dishwashing agents.- Cleaning agents.- Personal products.- 2.2.2 Industrial Applications.- Food products.- Pharmaceutical industry.- Insecticides and herbicides.- Agriculture.- Textiles and fibres.- Chemical industry.- Plastics industry.- Paints and lacquers.- Cellulose and paper.- Leather and furs.- Photographic industry.- Metal processing.- Electroplating.- Adhesives.- Road construction and building materials.- Firefighting.- Mining and flotation.- Oilfield chemicals.- 2.3 Literature.- 3 Synthesis of Surfactants.- 3.1 Raw Materials.- 3.1.1 Fat Derived Chemical Raw Materials.- 3.1.1.1 Fatty Acids.- 3.1.1.2 Fatty Acid Methyl Esters.- 3.1.1.3 Fatty Alcohols.- 3.1.1.4 Fatty Amines.- 3.1.2 Petrochemical Raw Materials.- 3.1.2.1 Long-Chain Hydrocarbons.- 3.1.2.2 Short-Chain Hydrocarbons.- 3.1.2.3 Alkylene Oxides.- 3.1.2.4 Olefins, Fatty- and Oxo-Alcohols — by Chain-Building Reactions.- 3.1.2.5 Alkyl Aromatics.- 3.1.2.6 Amines.- 3.1.3 Fatty Chemical and Petrochemical Raw Materials — Contrast or Supplement?.- 3.2 Surfactants.- 3.2.1 Anionic Surfactants.- 3.2.1.1 General Production Technologies.- 3.2.1.2 Soaps.- 3.2.1.3 Alkylbenzene Sulfonates.- 3.2.1.4 Fatty Alcohol Sulfates.- 3.2.1.5 Alkyl Ether Sulfates.- 3.2.1.6 Alkane Sulfonates.- 3.2.1.7 Olefin Sulfonates.- 3.2.1.8 ?-Sulfo Fatty Acid Esters.- 3.2.1.9 Internal Sulfo Fatty Acid Esters.- 3.2.1.10 Fatty Acid Cyanamides (Amide Soaps).- 3.2.1.11 Sulfo Succinic Acid Alkyl Esters.- 3.2.1.12 Acyl Oxyalkane Sulfonates (Fatty Acid Isethionates).- 3.2.1.13 Acylamino Alkane Sulfonates (Taurides).- 3.2.1.14 Ether Sulfonates.- 3.2.1.15 Ether Carboxylic Acids.- 3.2.1.16 Sarcosinates.- 3.2.1.17 Alkyl Phosphates and Alkyl Ether Phosphates.- 3.2.2 Nonionic Surfactants.- 3.2.2.1 Basic Properties.- 3.2.2.2 Polyglycol Ethers.- Fatty alcohol polyglycol ethers.- Alkylphenol polyglycol ethers.- End group-capped fatty alcohol polyglycol ethers.- Fatty acid polyglycol esters.- Fatty acid alkanol amides, fatty acid alkanolamido polyglycol ethers.- Ethylene oxide/propylene oxide block polymers.- 3.2.2.3 Polyol Surfactants.- Glycerine fatty acid esters.- Sorbitan esters.- Sugar derived surfactants (sugar esters, alkyl glycosides).- 3.2.2.4 Amine Oxides.- 3.2.3 Cationic Surfactants.- 3.2.3.1 Application Areas.- 3.2.3.2 Reaction Conditions.- Amine salts.- Quaternary ammonium compounds (quats).- 3.2.3.3 Amines with one long Alkyl Group.- 3.2.3.4 Amines with a long ß-Hydroxyalkyl Group.- 3.2.3.5 Amines with Several long Alkyl Groups.- 3.2.3.6 Amines with Several long ß-Hydroxyalkyl Groups.- 3.2.4 Amphoteric Surfactants.- 3.2.4.1 Carboxy Amphoteric Surfactants.- Alkyl betaines.- Other amphoterics.- 3.2.4.2 Sulfo Betaines.- 3.2.4.3 Basic Properties.- 3.2.5 Biosurfactants.- 3.2.5.1 Structure and Synthesis.- 3.2.5.2 Applications.- 3.3 Literature.- 4 Interfacial and Colloidal Properties.- 4.1 Solubility of Surfactants.- 4.1.1 Krafft Point.- 4.1.2 Cloud Point.- 4.2 Interfacial Activity and Micelle Formation.- 4.2.1 Effect of Surfactant Constitution.- 4.2.2 Properties of Surfactant Mixtures.- 4.2.3 Oil Specificity of Interfacial Activity.- 4.2.4 Emulsions (HLB Values).- 4.2.5 Polymeric Surfactants.- 4.3 Spread and Adsorbed Monolayers.- 4.3.1 Properties of Monolayers.- 4.3.2 Gibbs’ Film Elasticity and Marangoni Effect.- 4.3.3 Surface Shear Viscosity and Surface Dilatation Viscosity.- 4.3.4 Foam Stability.- 4.4 Surfactant Aggregates.- 4.4.1 Thermodynamics of Micelle Formation.- 4.4.2 Kinetics of Micelle Formation.- 4.4.3 Properties of Micelles.- 4.4.4 Lyotropic Liquid Crystals.- 4.4.5 Microemulsions.- 4.5 Adsorption on Solid Surfaces.- 4.5.1 Nonpolar Solids.- 4.5.2 Polar Solids.- 4.6 Theory of Washing and Cleaning.- 4.6.1 General Aspects.- 4.6.2 Oily and Fatty Soil.- 4.6.3 Effect of Surfactants on Solid Soil Particles.- 4.6.4 Effect of Sequestrants and Ion Exchangers.- 4.7 Literature.- 5 Performance in Detergents, Cleaning Agents and Personal Care Products.- 5.1 Detergents.- 5.1.1 Application Aspects.- 5.1.1.1 Partners in the Washing Process.- Textiles.- Laundry soils.- Water.- Washing machines.- Detergents.- 5.1.1.2 Wash Practices and Conditions in Various Countries/Continents.- Textiles.- Wear and use time periods.- Washing machines and water hardness.- Washing temperatures.- Time of agitation.- Detergent compositions.- 5.1.1.3 Test Methods.- Pure laboratory tests.- Artificially soiled test fabrics.- Detergency.- Foaming.- Fabric softeners.- Antiredeposition properties.- Incrustation.- Fabric damage.- Fabric color or dye damage.- Brightening effects.- Physical characteristics.- Practical evaluation.- Consumer test.- 5.1.1.4 Surfactants — Structure/Effect Relationships.- Homologs.- Isomers.- Structures.- Sensitivity to water hardness.- Counterion influence.- Adsorption and effect.- 5.1.1.5 Textile Fiber and Detergency.- 5.1.2 Detergent Ingredients.- 5.1.2.1 Surfactants.- Anionic surfactants.- Nonionic surfactants.- Cationic surfactants.- Amphoteric surfactants.- 5.1.2.2 Builders.- Alkalis.- Complexing agents.- Ion exchangers.- 5.1.2.3 Bleaching Systems.- Peroxide or active oxygen bleach.- Hypochlorite bleaches.- 5.1.2.4 Auxiliary Agents.- Enzymes.- Antiredeposition agents.- Foaming stabilizers and regulators.- Fluorescent whitening agents or optical brighteners (FWA).- Corrosion inhibitors.- Perfumes.- Dyestuffs.- Fillers and formulation aids.- 5.1.3 Formulations of Household Detergents.- 5.1.3.1 Heavy-Duty or All-Purpose Detergents.- Heavy-duty detergent powders.- Liquid heavy-duty detergents.- 5.1.3.2 Specialty Detergents.- Specialty detergent powders.- Liquid specialty detergents.- 5.1.3.3 Laundry Aids.- Pretreatment aids.- Laundry or water softeners.- Laundry presoaking products.- Prewash soil and stain removers.- Boosters.- Laundry bleaches.- Laundry boosters.- Aftertreatment aids.- Fabric softeners.- Starches and stiffeners.- Fabric formers.- Laundry dryer aids.- 5.1.4 Institutional Detergents.- 5.1.4.1 Introduction.- 5.1.4.2 Detergents and Auxiliary Agents.- Partially built detergents.- Completely built detergents.- Detergents for the pre and main wash.- Perborate containing detergents.- Special detergents.- Wetting agents.- Bleaching agents.- Disinfection additives.- Souring agents.- Fabric softeners.- Miscellaneous products.- 5.1.4.3 The Future Development of Institutional Detergents.- 5.2 Dishwashing Detergents and Hard Surface Cleaners for Household and Institutional Purposes.- 5.2.1 Manual Dishwashing Agents.- 5.2.1.1 Application Aspects.- 5.2.1.2 Test Methods and Determination of Use Value.- 5.2.1.3 Ingredients.- Primary surfactants.- Surfactant combinations.- Secondary surfactants.- 5.2.1.4 Formulations.- 5.2.1.5 Additional Properties.- Skin compatibility.- Oral ingestion.- 5.2.2 Products for Mechanical Dishwashing.- 5.2.2.1 Dishwashing Machines.- 5.2.2.2 Application Aspects.- 5.2.2.3 Test Methods and Determination of Use Value.- 5.2.2.4 Formulations.- Dishwashing detergents.- Rinse aids.- 5.2.2.5 Practical Application of Dishwashing Detergents.- 5.2.3 All-Purpose Cleaners and Scouring Agents.- 5.2.3.1 Application Aspects.- 5.2.3.2 Test Methods and Determination of Use Value.- 5.2.3.3 Ingredients.- Surfactants.- Complexing agents.- Organic polymers.- Solvents.- Microbicides.- Bleaching compounds.- Abrasives.- 5.2.3.4 Formulations.- All purpose cleaners.- Scouring agents.- 5.2.4 Special Cleaners for Bathrooms and Toilets.- 5.2.4.1 Floors and Walls.- 5.2.4.2 Bathtubs.- 5.2.4.3 Toilets.- Liquid acidic toilet cleaners.- Spreadable toilet cleaning powders.- Auto-active toilet bowl cleaners.- 5.2.1 Wash-and-Wax Products (One-Step Clean and Shine Floor Polishes).- Surfactants.- Waxes.- Polymers.- 5.2.6 Carpet Cleaners.- 5.2.6.1 Application Aspects.- 5.2.6.2 Test Methods.- 5.2.6.3 Active Ingredients and Formulations.- Foam cleaners.- Spray-extraction cleaners.- Powder cleaners.- 5.3 Cosmetics and Toiletries.- 5.3.1 Definition of Cosmetic Products (Government Regulations).- 5.3.2 Predominant Types of Cosmetic Products.- 5.3.2.1 Solutions.- 5.3.2.2 Colloidal Solutions (Gels).- 5.3.2.3 Suspensions.- 5.3.2.4 Oils.- 5.3.2.5 Ointments.- 5.3.2.6 Emulsions.- 5.3.2.7 Creams.- 5.3.2.8 Soaps.- 5.3.2.9 Surfactant Solutions (Liquid Soaps).- 5.3.2.10 Sticks.- 5.3.2.11 Powders.- 5.3.2.12 Granulates.- 5.3.2.13 Aerosols.- 5.3.2.14 Lacquers.- 5.3.3 Application Areas of Cosmetic Products.- 5.3.3.1 Skin.- 5.3.3.2 Appendages of the Skin.- Hair.- Sebaceous glands.- Small (eccrine) sweat glands.- Large (apocrine) sweat glands.- Nails.- 5.3.3.3 Functions of the Skin and its Appendages.- 5.3.3.4 Adaptability of the Skin.- 5.3.3.5 Oral Cavity.- Mucous membrane of the mouth.- Teeth.- 5.3.4 Surfactants in Cosmetic Products.- 5.3.4.1 Interactions of Surfactants with the Skin.- 5.3.4.2 Interactions of Surfactants with the Hair.- 5.3.4.3 Interactions of Surfactants with the Oral Cavity and the Teeth.- 5.3.4.4 Predominant Surfactants for Cosmetic Products.- Anionic surfactants.- Cationic surfactants.- Amphoteric surfactants.- Nonionic surfactants.- 5.3.4.5 Evalutation of Surfactants for Cosmetic Products.- 5.3.5 Classification of Cosmetic Products.- 5.3.5.1 Possibilities for the Classification of Cosmetic Products.- 5.3.5.2 Cosmetic Products, the Effect of Which is Primarily Assignable to the Content of Surfactants.- Skin cleaning preparations.- Bath preparations.- Skin care preparations.- Skin creams.- Body lotions.- Facial lotions.- Skin oils.- Hydrophilic skin oils.- Hair care products.- Shampoos.- Hair rinses.- Hair conditioners.- Hair colorants.- Shaving preparations.- Shaving soaps.- 5.3.5.3 Cosmetic Products, in Which Surfactants Perform Auxiliary Functions.- Shaving lotions.- Hair dressing emulsions.- Hair setting preparations.- Mouth and tooth care preparations.- Toothpowders.- Toothcreams and toothpastes.- Mouthwash or mouth rinse preparations.- Fragrances, perfumes, colognes.- 5.3.6 Performance Evaluation of Cosmetic Products.- 5.3.6.1 Restrictions Imposed by the Legislator.- 5.3.6.2 Evaluation of the Effect on the Skin.- 5.3.6.3 Evaluation of the Effect on the Hair.- 5.3.6.4 Evaluation of the Effect on the Teeth.- 5.3.7 Evaluation of Product Safety.- 5.3.8 Evaluation of Stability.- 5.3.9 Testing for Microbial Purity.- 5.3.10 Guide Compositions.- 5.4 Literature Sections 5.1, 5.2, 5.3.- 6 Manufacture of Consumer Products.- 6.1 Manufacture of Powder Products.- 6.1.1 Introduction.- 6.1.2 Manufacturers of Spray Drying Equipment and Installations.- 6.1.3 Process Principles and Historical Review.- 6.1.4 Pressure Nozzle Atomization.- 6.1.4.1 Slurry Preparation and Transport.- 6.1.4.2 Air Flow Pattern.- 6.1.4.3 Process Regulation and Control.- 6.1.4.4 Blending of the Products to Obtain the Final Product.- 6.1.4.5 Chemistry of the Ingredients of Detergents and Cleaning Compounds.- Surfactants.- Phosphates.- Sodium aluminum silicates.- 6.1.5 Mixing and Spray Mixing Processes.- 6.2 Manufacture of Liquid Products.- 6.2.1 Detergents and Cleaning Compounds.- 6.2.2 Shampoos and Hair Rinses.- 6.3 Manufacture of Medium-Viscosity to High-Viscosity Products.- 6.3.1 Detergents, Cleaning Compounds and Personal Care Preparations in Paste Form.- 6.3.2 Personal Care Preparations in Emulsion Form in the Medium-to High-Viscosity Range.- 6.3.3 Mixing Equipment for Batch Processes.- 6.3.3.1 Mixing Kettles.- 6.3.3.2 Trough Mixers and Kneaders.- 6.3.4 Continuous Processes.- 6.3.4.1 One-Shaft Mixers (Extruders).- 6.3.4.2 Two-Shaft Mixers.- 6.3.4.3 Roller Mills.- 6.4 Manufacture of Bar Soap from Natural Raw Materials.- 6.4.1 Raw Materials.- 6.4.2 Manufacture of the Basic Neat Soap.- 6.4.2.1 Saponification Processes.- 6.4.2.2 Kettle Saponification.- 6.4.2.3 Continuous Saponification Processes.- Neutral fat saponification.- ALFA-LAVAL Centripure Process.- Mazzoni SCN Process.- Weber and Seeländer KVN Process.- Meccaniche Moderne SAES/N Process.- Sharples Process.- Monsavon Process.- Fatty acid saponification.- Mazzoni SC and SCC Processes.- ALFA-LAVAL High Caustic-High Solids Saponification Process.- Meccaniche Moderne SAES/AG Process.- Methylester saponification.- 6.4.2.4 Drying Systems.- 6.4.3 Manufacture of Bar Soap.- Mixing and homogenizing.- Strand formation.- Cutting of soap strands into raw bars.- Stamping.- 6.4.3.1 Uniformly Colored (Single Color) Bar Soaps.- 6.4.3.2 Multicolored Bar Soaps.- 6.4.3.3 Transparent Soaps.- 6.4.3.4 Shaving Soaps.- 6.5 Manufacture of Bar Soaps Based on Synthetic Surfactants.- 6.6 Literature.- 7 Analysis of Surfactants and Surfactant Formulations.- Dr. G. Schwarz, Dr. E. Vaeth.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Inorganic Components in Detergents and Cleaning Agents.- 7.3 Organic Components in Detergents.- 7.3.1 Preface.- 7.3.2 Raw Material Analysis.- 7.3.3 Analysis of a Detergent.- Nonionic surfactants.- Anionic surfactants.- Amines and quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC).- Proteases.- Fluorescent whitening agents.- Polycarboxylic acids.- 7.3.4 Analysis of Cosmetics and Toiletries.- 7.4 Literature.- 8 Environmental Impact.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Components of Detergents, Cleaners and Cosmetics.- 8.3 Environmental Aspects.- 8.3.1 Surfactants.- 8.3.1.1 Methods for Determining Toxicity Towards Water Organisms.- 8.3.1.2 Toxicity Data.- 8.3.1.3 The “Predicted Environmental Concentration” Concept (PEC).- 8.3.1.4 Biodegradability.- 8.3.1.5 Biodegradability Test Methods.- Biodegradability tests specified in detergent legislation.- Ultimate biodegradability.- Test for detecting recalcitrant metabolites.- 8.3.1.6 Biodegradability Data.- Data from routine tests.- Investigations with radiolabeled surfactants.- 8.3.1.7 Environmental Data.- 8.3.2 Phosphate.- 8.3.3 Zeolite A.- 8.3.4 Sodium Perborate.- 8.4 Conclusions.- 8.5 Literature.- 9 Biological Effects, Toxicology and Human Safety.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Biochemical Properties of Surfactants.- 9.3 Toxicokinetics of Surfactants.- 9.3.1 Percutaneous Absorption.- 9.3.2 Intestinal Absorption and Metabolism.- 9.4 Local Effects.- 9.4.1 Skin Compatibility.- 9.4.2 Mucous Membrane Compatibility.- 9.4.3 Sensitization.- 9.5 Systemic Effects.- 9.5.1 Acute Toxicity.- 9.5.2 Chronic Toxicity.- 9.5.3 Carcinogenicity.- 9.5.4 Mutagenicity.- 9.5.5 Embryotoxicity.- 9.6 Conclusions on Consumer Safety.- 9.7 Summary.- 9.8 Literature.- 10 Economic Aspects.- 10.1 Production Volumes and Application Areas of Surfactants.- 10.1.1 Regional Distribution of Surfactant Consumption.- 10.1.2 Regional Breakdown by Application Areas.- 10.1.3 Surfactant Consumption in Respect to the Chemical Structure.- 10.2 Detergents and Cleaning Compounds.- 10.2.1 Surfactants in Detergents and Cleaning Compounds.- 10.2.2 Other Detergent Ingredients.- 10.2.2.1 Builders (Phosphates, Zeolite A, NTA).- 10.2.2.2 Bleaching Agents.- 10.2.2.3 Enzymes.- 10.2.3 Dishwashing Detergents and Cleaning Compounds.- 10.3 Personal Care Products.- 10.3.1 Surfactants in Personal Care Products.- 10.3.1.1 Soaps.- 10.3.1.2 Synthetic Surfactants.- 10.4 Literature.- 11 Development Trends.- 11.1 Preamble.- 11.2 Consumer Products.- 11.2.1 Detergents.- 11.2.2 Dishwashing Detergents.- 11.2.3 Household Cleaners.- 11.2.4 Personal Care Preparations.- 11.3 Ingredients of Consumer Products.- 11.3.1 Surfactants.- 11.3.1.1 Alkylbenzene sulfonates.- 11.3.1.2 Fatty Alcohol Sulfates and Fatty Alcohol Ether Sulfates.- 11.3.1.3 ?-Sulfo Fatty Acid Esters.- 11.3.1.4 Alkane Sulfonates.- 11.3.1.5 ? -Olefin Sulfonates.- 11.3.1.6 Soaps.- 11.3.1.7 Nonionic Surfactants.- 11.3.1.8 Cationic Surfactants.- 11.3.1.9 Other Surfactants.- 11.3.1.10 Summary.- 11.3.2 Builders.- Phosphates.- Zeolite A.- NTA.- 11.3.3 Bleaching Agents.- Chlorine bleach.- Oxygen bleaching agents.- 11.3.4 Other Ingredients of Consumer Products.- 11.4 Outlook.- 11.5 Literature.- 12 Definition of Important Terms.- 12.1 Terms.- 12.2 Literature.