Issues and Reviews in Teratology: Volume 2

ISBN-13: 9781461573166 / Angielski / Miękka / 2012 / 516 str.

Harold Kalter

Opis

A growing sophistication of the American populace about the nature and realities of the impact of the environment on prenatal development was not much in evi dence in 1983. Continuing accusations against Agent Orange and Bendectin high light what must be a deep credulousness and need to blame others for one's bio logical misfortunes. We despair that ignorance and nonaccountability can be dissipated by objective means. But one can only learn and teach and hope. The need to know what causes congenital malformations becomes more imperative as they become the last major holdout, the most unyielding of all the reasons babies still die and are seriously ill. In the aggregate, congenital malfor mations are now the cause of about one-third of the deaths of infants less than one month old and one-fifth of the deaths of those under one year old, up 50% in the last two decades. In the instance of one suspected cause of congenital malformations, maternal insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, while the perinatal mortality rate of children of such women has gone down greatly since World War II, the fraction of deaths due to congenital malformations has grown correspondingly and is now approach ing 50%. Present-day knowledge of the causes of congenital malformations is most imperfect. A recent authoritative review found that there is understanding to one extent or another of the causation of less than half of all congenital malformations.

Spis treści

1 Birth Defects Monitoring Systems: Accomplishments and Goals.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Further Reasons for Registering Malformations.- 3. Fundamentals of Malformation Registration.- 3.1. Identifying Malformations.- 3.2. Reporting Malformations.- 3.3. Coding.- 3.4. Storage of Information.- 4. What Should Be Monitored?.- 4.1. Gross and Minor Malformations.- 4.2. Multiple Malformations.- 4.3. Background Information Needed.- 5. The Problem of Ascertainment.- 6. Size of Population Monitored.- 7. Properties of Monitoring Systems and Ascertainment Rates.- 8. Detection of Changes in Prevalence.- 9. Limitations and Benefits of Monitoring Systems.- References.- 2 What Is a Teratogen? Epidemiological Criteria.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Definition of a Teratogen.- 3. Criteria of Judgment in Epidemiology.- 3.1. Strength of Association.- 3.2. Specificity of Association.- 3.3. Consistency of Association.- 3.4. Coherence with Other Data—Clinical and Laboratory.- 4. Dealing with Doubt.- 4.1. Data Consisting Entirely of Case Reports.- 4.2. Doubt Raised by Inconsistency.- 4.3. Where Confounding Cannot Be Controlled.- 5. Raising the Alert.- 5.1. Assessment of Changes over Time.- 5.2. The Range of Outcomes.- 5.3. The Definitions of Outcomes to Be Monitored and Their Baseline Frequencies.- 5.4. The Strength of Association.- 5.5. The Frequency of Exposure in the Population.- 5.6. The Etiological Fraction.- 5.7. Statistical Methods.- 6. Conclusion.- References.- 3 Congenital Hydrocephalus in Mice and Man.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Teratology.- 2.1. Hereditary (Spontaneous) Hydrocephalus.- 2.2. Exogenous (Induced) Hydrocephalus.- 3. Discussion.- References.- 4 Congenital Defects of Domestic and Feral Animals.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Definitions.- 3. Nature and Effect.- 4. Frequency.- 5. Causes.- 5.1. Environmental Factors.- 5.2. Genetic Factors.- 6. Specific Defects.- 6.1. Skeletal.- 6.2. Joints.- 6.3. Muscular.- 6.4. Central Nervous System.- 6.5. Storage Diseases.- 6.6. Ocular.- 6.7. Skin.- 6.8. Hair.- 6.9. Cardiovascular.- 6.10. Respiratory.- 6.11. Digestive.- 6.12. Hepatic.- 6.13. Large Body Cavities.- 6.14. Urinary.- 6.15. Reproductive.- 6.16. Metabolic.- 6.17. Immunodeficiency.- 6.18. Defective Twinning.- 7. Conclusions.- References.- 5 Transplacental Exposure to Diethylstilbestrol.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Clinical Research.- 2.1. Lower Genital Tract Anomalies.- 2.2. Upper Genital Tract Anomalies.- 2.3. Hormones and Enzymes.- 2.4. Reproduction.- 2.5. Cancer.- 3. Animal Research.- 3.1. Issues.- 3.2. Animal Models.- 3.3. Critique of Models.- 3.4. Cytology.- 3.5. Metabolism.- 3.6. Superimposed Carcinogens.- 3.7. Second-Generation Effects.- 4. Mechanism of Transplacental Carcinogenesis.- 4.1. First Generation.- 4.2. Second Generation.- 4.3. Abnormal Histogenesis.- References.- 6 Hormones, Growth Factors, and Their Receptors in Normal and Abnormal Prenatal Development.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Steroids.- 2.1. Glucocorticoids.- 2.2. Glucocorticoid-Induced Cleft Palate.- 2.3. Glucocorticoid Receptors in Secondary Palate Development.- 2.4. H-2 Influence on Glucocorticoid-Induced Cleft Palate.- 2.5. Glucocorticoid Effects on the Development of the Secondary Palate.- 2.6. Estrogens.- 3. Growth Hormones and Factors.- 3.1. Insulin.- 3.2. Somatomedins.- 3.3. Epidermal and Nerve Growth Factor.- 3.4. Hormonal Influences Mediated by Cyclic Nucleotides.- 4. Dioxins and Their Receptors in Teratology.- 5. Benzodiazepine and Opiate Receptors.- 6. Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 7 Vertebrate Limb Morphogenesis: A Review of Normal Development in a Model Experimental System with Applications toward Understanding Abnormal Limb Formation.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Apical Ectodermal Ridge.- 2.1. Promotion of Axial Growth.- 2.2. Maintenance of Limb Vasculature.- 2.3. Structural Organization.- 3. Mesoderm and Limb Patterns.- 3.1. Origin of Limb Mesenchymal Cells.- 3.2. Pattern Formation.- 4. Extracellular Matrix.- 4.1. Collagen.- 4.2. Proteoglycan.- 4.3. Fibronectin.- 4.4. Cell-Matrix Interaction.- 5. Cell Death.- 5.1. Patterns of Necrosis.- 5.2. Pattern Variation.- 6. Limb Mutants.- 6.1. Limbless.- 6.2. Wingless.- 6.3. Talpid.- 6.4. Eudiplopodia.- 6.5. Stumpy.- 6.6. BrachypodismH.- 7. Dysmorphogenesis.- 7.1. Amelia.- 7.2. Hemimelia.- 7.3. Phocomelia.- 7.4. Syndactyly and Polydactyly.- 8. Summary.- References.- 8 Teratogenicity of Experimental and Occupational Exposure to Industrial Chemicals.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Alcohols (Ethanol).- 3. Aldehydes.- 3.1. Formaldehyde.- 3.2. Acetaldehyde.- 4. Heavy Metals.- 4.1. Lead.- 4.2. Mercury and Organic Mercury Compounds.- 4.3. Cadmium.- 5. Halogenated Hydrocarbons (Chlorinated Solvents).- 5.1. Chloroform.- 5.2. Carbon Tetrachloride.- 5.3. Trichloroethylene.- 5.4. Perchloroethylene.- 5.5. Methyl Chloride.- 5.6. Methylene Chloride.- 5.7. Methylchloroform.- 5.8. Ethylene Dibromide.- 5.9. Ethylene Dichloride.- 6. Ketones.- 6.1. Acetone.- 6.2. Methyl Ethyl Ketone.- 7. Organic Solvents.- 7.1. Benzene.- 7.2. Toluene.- 7.3. Xylene.- 7.4. Ethylene Glycol Monomethyl Ether and Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl Ether.- 8. Plastics and Related Chemicals.- 8.1. Styrene.- 8.2. Vinyl Chloride.- 8.3. Vinylidene Chloride.- 8.4. Acrylonitrile.- 8.5. Acrylamide.- 8.6. Epichlorohydrin.- 8.7. Phthalates.- 8.8. Acrylates.- 8.9. Urethan.- 8.10. Chloroprene.- 8.11. Alkylene Oxides.- 9. Chlorobenzenes and Carbon Monoxide.- 9.1. Monochlorobenzene.- 9.2. o- and p-Dichlorobenzene.- 9.3. Tetrachlorobenzenes.- 9.4. Hexachlorobenzene.- 9.5. Carbon Monoxide.- 10. Discussion and Conclusions.- References.- 9 Critical Assessment of Genetic Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Pre- and Postnatal Development.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Prologue.- 3. The Human Experience.- 3.1. Diagnostic and Therapeutic Use of X-Rays and Radioactive Materials.- 3.2. Occupational Exposure.- 3.3. Geographic Areas with “High” Natural or Man-Made Background Exposures.- 3.4. The Offspring of A-Bomb Survivors.- 4. Permissible Exposures.- 5. Future Directions.- 6. Glossary.- References.- 10 Adverse Effects in Humans and Animals of Prenatal Exposure to Selected Therapeutic Drugs and Estimation of Embryo-Fetal Sensitivity of Animals for Human Risk Assessment: A Review.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Aspirin and Salicylates.- 2.1. Human Studies.- 2.2. Animal Studies.- 2.3. Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism.- 2.4. Extrapolation of Hazards to Human Fetus.- 3. Progestational Agents.- 3.1. Progesterone and Hydroxyprogesterone.- 3.2. Testosterone and Its Derivatives.- 3.3. Progestogen and Estrogen.- 3.4. Diethylstilbestrol.- 4. Anticonvulsant Drugs.- 4.1. Human Studies.- 4.2. Animal Studies.- 5. Phenothiazines.- 5.1. Human Studies.- 5.2. Animal Studies.- 6. Meprobamate.- 6.1. Human Studies.- 6.2. Animal Studies.- 6.3. Extrapolation of Hazards to Human Fetus.- 7. Pregnancy Toxemia and Reserpine.- 7.1. Human Studies.- 7.2. Animal Studies.- 7.3. Extrapolation of Hazards to Human Fetus.- 8. Thalidomide.- 8.1. Human Studies.- 8.2. Animal Studies.- 8.3. Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism.- 8.4. Extrapolation of Hazards to Human Fetus.- 9. Isoniazid.- 9.1. Human Studies.- 9.2. Animal Studies.- 9.3. Extrapolation of Hazards to Human Fetus.- 10. Tetracyclines.- 10.1. Human Studies.- 10.2. Animal Studies.- 11. Aminopterin.- 11.1. Human Studies.- 11.2. Animal Studies.- 11.3. Extrapolation of Hazards to Human Fetus.- 12. Methotrexate.- 12.1. Human Studies.- 12.2. Animal Studies.- 12.3. Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism.- 12.4. Extrapolation of Hazards to Human Fetus.- 13. Fetal Sensitivity in Animals Relative to Humans: Conclusions.- 14. Summary.- References.