Food Hygiene, Microbiology and Haccp

ISBN-13: 9781461359197 / Angielski / Miękka / 2013 / 449 str.

S. Forsythe

Opis

Food microbiology is a fascinating and challenging science. It is also very demanding with a constantly changing sea of guidelines, regulations and equip- ment. Public concerns over food safety issues can overemphasize certain risks and detract from the normal hygienic practice of food manufacturers. This new edition aims to update anyone concerned with the hygienic production of food on key issues of HACCP, food microbiology and the methods of microbe detection. I have taken a 'crystal ball' approach to certain topics. The use of rapid techniques such as lux gene technology and polymerase chain reaction (DNA probes) are progressing so rapidly in the research laboratory that when this book is in print the techniques may be more readily available. New methods for investigating viral gastroenteritis due to small round structured viruses (SRSV) have been developed past the 'research' stage and may become more standard in the next few years. Undoubtedly this will alter our understanding of the prevalence of viral food poisoning. I have also included issues such as new variant CJD (associated with BSE infected cattle) which at the time of writing has only caused the deaths of 20 people, but due to the uncertain incubation time could be a far more serious problem. In the UK there has been a much publicised outbreak of Escherichia coli 0157: H7 which has resulted in a government inquiry and the recommenda- tion of the generic HACCP approach. Hence this approach to HACCP imple- mentation has been included.

Spis treści

1 Fundamental Principles of Microbiology.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 Characterisitics of Bacteria.- 1.2.1 Shape and size.- 1.2.2 Reproduction.- 1.2.3 Bacterial structure.- 1.2.4 Gram reaction.- 1.3 Types of Bacteria Important in Foods.- 1.3.1 Gram negative bacteria.- 1.3.2 Gram positive bacteria.- 1.4 Characteristics of Fungi.- 1.4.1 Moulds.- 1.4.2 Yeasts.- 1.5 Characteristics of Viruses and Prions.- 1.6 The Growth Curve of Bacteria.- 1.7 Factors Influencing Bacterial Growth.- 1.7.1 Nutrients.- 1.7.2 Temperature.- 1.7.3 Moisture.- 1.7.4 Oxygen.- 1.7.5 Hydrogen ion concentration (pH).- 1.7.6 Inhibitory substances.- References.- 2 Food Poisoning and Other Food-borne Hazards.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Incidence of Food Poisoning.- 2.2.1 The bacteria responsible.- 2.2.2 Type of food.- 2.3 Bacterial Food Poisoning.- 2.3.1 Salmonellas.- 2.3.2 Enteritis due to Campylobacter spp.- 2.3.3 Staphylococcus aureus.- 2.3.4 Bacillus cereus.- 2.3.5 Vibrio parahaemolyticus.- 2.3.6 Botulism.- 2.3.7 Listeriosis.- 2.3.8 Clostridium perfringens.- 2.3.9 Escherichia coli.- 2.3.10 Miscellaneous bacterial food poisoning and new variant CJD.- 2.4 Mycotoxicoses.- 2.4.1 Aflatoxins.- 2.4.2 Miscellaneous mycotoxins.- 2.5 Virus Food Poisoning.- 2.5.1 Small round structured viruses (SRSV).- 2.5.2 Infective hepatitis.- 2.5.3 Rotaviruses.- 2.5.4 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and new variant CJD.- 2.5.5 General control measures.- 2.6 Animal Toxins and Parasitic Infections.- 2.6.1 Animals that are naturally toxic to man.- 2.6.2 Secondary toxicity.- 2.6.3 Parasitic infections.- 2.7 Poisonous Plants.- 2.8 Chemical Poisoning.- References.- 3 Food Spoilage.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Spoilage of Fresh Meats.- 3.2.1 Contamination of tissues by microorganisms.- 3.2.2 Control of microbial growth.- 3.2.3 Effect of storage temperature.- 3.2.4 Chemical changes produced by bacteria in chilled meats.- 3.3 Spoilage of Cured Meats.- 3.3.1 Curing agents.- 3.3.2 The curing process.- 3.3.3 The microbiology and spoilage of bacon and ham.- 3.4 Spoilage of Vacuum-Packed Meats.- 3.4.1 Types of packaging materials.- 3.4.2 Influence of packaging materials on the microbiological flora.- 3.4.3 Spoilage of packed fresh meats.- 3.4.4 Spoilage of vacuum-packed bacon.- 3.4.5 Modified atmospheric packaging.- 3.4.6 Sous vide.- 3.5 Spoilage of Poultry.- 3.5.1 Effects of processing on the microbiological flora.- 3.5.2 Spoilage of chickens held at chill temperatures.- 3.6 Spoilage of Fish and Shellfish.- 3.6.1 Bacteriology of the newly caught fish.- 3.6.2 The effect of initial processing and storage in ice on board ship.- 3.6.3 The effect of handling ashore.- 3.6.4 Chemical changes induced by bacteria in fish.- 3.6.5 Salted fish.- 3.6.6 Smoked fish.- 3.6.7 Packaged fish.- 3.6.8 Shellfish.- 3.7 Dairy Products.- 3.7.1 Milk.- 3.7.2 Butter.- 3.7.3 Cheese.- 3.7.4 Yoghurt.- 3.8 Eggs and Egg Products.- 3.8.1 The chicken’s egg and its spoilage.- 3.8.2 Egg products.- 3.9 Vegetables and Fruits.- 3.9.1 Spoilage by fungi.- 3.9.2 Spoilage by bacteria.- 3.9.3 Control of microbial spoilage.- 3.10 Cereal Based Products.- 3.11 Beer.- 3.12 Wine.- 3.13 Sauerkraut.- 3.14 Canned Foods.- 3.14.1 Leaker spoilage.- 3.14.2 Spoilage due to inadequate heat treatment.- 3.15 Frozen Foods.- 3.15.1 Influence of sub-zero temperatures on microorganisms.- 3.15.2 Factors affecting viability of microorganisms during freezing.- 3.15.3 Effect of cold storage.- 3.15.4 Freezing injury to cells.- 3.15.5 Thawed foods and their spoilage.- 3.16 Dehydrated Foods.- 3.16.1 Methods of drying.- 3.16.2 Influence of drying and freeze drying on microorganisms.- 3.16.3 Storage stability of dried foods.- 3.16.4 Rehydration.- 3.16.5 Intermediate moisture foods.- 3.17 Irradiated Foods 13.- 3.17.1 Types of radiation.- 3.17.2 Effect of radiation on microorganisms.- 3.17.3 High dose applicatons.- 3.17.4 Low dose applications and the spoilage of foods so treated.- References.- 4 Microbiological Examining Methods.- 4.1 The Rational of Microbiological Testing.- 4.2 Sampling.- 4.2.1 Sampling plan.- 4.2.2 The representative sample.- 4.2.3 Sampling techniques.- 4.2.4 Treatment of sample.- 4.2.5 Examination methods.- 4.3 Microbiological Test Procedures.- 4.3.1 Total viable count.- 4.3.2 Viable but nonculturable bacteria.- 4.4 Conventional Methods.- 4.4.1 Indicator organisms.- 4.4.2 Food poisoning bacteria.- 4.4.3 Food spoilage organisms.- 4.4.4 Canned foods.- 4.4.5 Frozen and dehydrated food.- 4.5 Rapid Detection Techniques.- 4.5.1 Separation and concentration techniques.- 4.5.2 Impedance microbiology.- 4.5.3 Enzyme immunoassays and latex agglutination tests.- 4.5.4 Nucleic acid probes and PCR.- 4.5.5 ATP bioluminescence techniques and hygiene monitoring.- 4.5.6 Lux gene technology.- 4.5.7 Flow cytometry.- 4.5.8 Miscellaneous tests.- 4.6 Microbiological Criteria and Specifications.- References.- 5 Factory Design and Construction.- 5.1 The Factory Site.- 5.2 General Design Principles and Structural Techniques.- 5.2.1 Roofing and lighting.- 5.3 Construction of Ceilings, Walls and Floors.- 5.3.1 Ceilings and overhead fittings.- 5.3.2 Walls.- 5.3.3 Floors and drains.- 5.4 Ventilation and Air Conditioning.- 5.5 Noise and Vibration.- 6 Factory Layout.- 6.1 Handling of Food Materials.- 6.1.1 Work flow patterns and plant layout.- 6.2 Layout and Integration of Different Work Areas.- 6.2.1 Raw materials: reception.- 6.2.2 Raw materials: storage.- 6.2.3 Processing area.- 6.2.4 Finished product storage.- 6.2.5 Employee service and welfare areas.- 6.2.6 Offices and general administration buildings.- 6.2.7 Laboratories.- 6.2.8 Machine maintenance and storage areas.- 6.2.9 Integration of the principal areas of work.- Reference.- 7 Design of Food Processing Equipment.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Legislation.- 7.3 Construction Materials.- 7.3.1 General requirements.- 7.3.2 Stainless steel.- 7.3.3 Corrosion of stainless steel.- 7.3.4 Iron and mild steel.- 7.3.5 Copper and its alloys.- 7.3.6 Miscellaneous metals.- 7.3.7 Plastics.- 7.3.8 Rubber, glass and wood.- 7.3.9 Antimicrobial worksurfaces.- 7.4 Growth ‘Pockets’.- 7.5 Ease of Dismantling and Re-assembly of Equipment.- 7.6 Accessibility and the Supporting Framework.- 7.7 External Surfaces.- 7.8 Design Features for Individual Items of Equipment.- 7.8.1 Tanks, vats, etc.- 7.8.2 Pumps.- 7.8.3 Valves.- 7.8.4 Pipes.- 7.8.5 Steam and air lines.- 7.8.6 Motors.- 7.8.7 Size reduction equipment.- 7.8.8 Mixers.- 7.8.9 Forming and assembly equipment.- 7.8.10 Mechanical separators.- 7.8.11 Equipment transferring solid foods.- 7.8.12 Heating equipment.- 7.8.13 Safety.- References.- 8 HACCP and Product Quality.- 8.1 HACCP and Quality Schemes.- 8.2 Origins of HACCP.- 8.3 Objectives of HACCP.- 8.4 The Seven Principles of HACCP.- 8.4.1 Principle 1.- 8.4.2 Principle 2.- 8.4.3 Principle 3.- 8.4.4 Principle 4.- 8.4.5 Principle 5.- 8.4.6 Principle 6.- 8.4.7 Principle 7.- 8.5 HACCP-like Implementation.- 8.6 Generic HACCP.- 8.6.1 CCP for refrigerated foods.- 8.6.2 CCP for whole young chickens.- 8.7 Principle 1 — Hazard Analysis.- 8.7.1 Microbial hazards.- 8.7.2 Extrinsic parameters.- 8.8 Principle 2 — Critical Control Points.- 8.8.1 The CCP decision tree.- 8.8.2 Trends in CCP implementation.- 8.9 Critical Limits.- 8.9.1 Critical limits during a cooking process.- 8.10 ATP-bioluminescence and HACCP Monitoring.- 8.11 End-product Testing and Microbiological Criteria.- 8.11.1 Verification.- 8.11.2 Record keeping.- 8.11.3 Dairy industry.- 8.11.4 Meat industry.- 8.11.5 Seafoods industry.- 8.11.6 Catering, cooked—chilled foods, sous-vide.- 8.12 Problems of Implementation.- 8.13 HACCP and Predictive Microbiology.- 8.14 Risk Assessment.- 8.15 Quality Assurance and Quality Control.- 8.16 Raw Material Control.- 8.16.1 Inspection.- 8.16.2 Ambient temperature storage.- 8.16.3 Chill storage.- 8.16.4 Deep frozen storage.- 8.16.5 Storage zones.- 8.17 Process Control.- 8.17.1 Process temperature/time relationships.- 8.17.2 Design of and critical points in pork pie processing.- 8.17.3 Waste materials.- 8.17.4 Maintenance of processing lines.- 8.18 Packaging.- 8.18.1 Required properties of packaging materials.- 8.18.2 Main types of packaging materials and containers.- 8.18.3 Microbiological aspects of packaging materials.- 8.18.4 Storage of packaging materials.- 8.19 Finished Product Storage.- 8.20 Transport and Distribution.- 8.21 Total Quality Management and Longitudinal Integrated Safety Assurance.- References.- 9 Cleaning and Disinfection: Methods.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Definitions.- 9.3 Types of Soil.- 9.4 Removal of Gross Soil.- 9.5 Detergents.- 9.5.1 Desirable properties.- 9.5.2 Classifications of detergents.- 9.5.3 Detergent formulation.- 9.5.4 Factors affecting efficiency of detergents.- 9.6 Chemical Disinfectants.- 9.6.1 Desirable properties.- 9.6.2 Classification of disinfectants.- 9.6.3 Evaluation of disinfectants.- 9.7 Use of Heat.- 9.7.1 Steam.- 9.7.2 Hot water.- 9.8 Dry Cleaning.- 9.9 Cleaning-in-Place (CIP).- 9.9.1 CIP systems.- 9.9.2 Spraying devices.- 9.9.3 Benefits of CIP.- 9.10 Mechanical Aids for Cleaning.- 9.10.1 Pressurized steam.- 9.10.2 Hydraulic devices.- 9.10.3 Compressed air.- 9.10.4 Ultrasonics.- 9.10.5 Portable cleaning machines.- 9.10.6 Fixed cleaning systems.- 9.11 Foam Cleaning.- 9.12 Cleaning Small Equipment.- 9.13 Paper and Fabric Wipers.- References.- 10 Cleaning and Disinfection: Practical Application.- 10.1 Aims.- 10.2 Cleaning Schedules.- 10.3 Biofilms.- 10.4 Use of Labour.- 10.5 The Role of Management.- 10.6 Miscellaneous Problems Encountered.- 10.7 Assessment of Cleaning Efficiency.- References.- 11 Hygiene and Training of Personnel.- 11.1 Hand Washing and Care of the Hands.- 11.1.1 Personal hygiene.- 11.1.2 Bactericidal soaps and creams.- 11.1.3 Use of gloves.- 11.2 Practices, Good and Bad.- 11.2.1 Clothing and jewellery.- 11.2.2 Hair.- 11.2.3 Other bad practices.- 11.3 Health Supervision.- 11.3.1 Pre-employment medical examination.- 11.3.2 Health monitoring of employees.- 11.4 Induction and In-Service Training.- References.- 12 World-wide Food Safety Programmes and Legislation.- 12.1 World-wide Food Safety Programmes.- 12.1.1 World-wide food poisoning outbreaks.- 12.1.2 Salm-Net.- 12.1.3 Antibiotic resistance.- 12.2 Legislation.- 12.3 Food Legislation Within the European Community.- 12.3.1 The legislative process.- 12.3.2 Microbiological criteria for foods.- 12.3.3 Examples of EC food legislation.- 12.4 International Food Standards.- 12.4.1 International implementation of HACCP concept.- 12.5 Food Hygiene and Safety Legislation in the UK.- 12.5.1 The Food Safety Act (1990).- 12.5.2 Codes of Practice.- 12.5.3 Food Safety (General Food Hygiene) 1995.- 12.5.4 Food Safety (Temperature)Regulations 1995.- 12.5.5 Dairy Products (Hygiene) Regulations 1995.- 12.5.6 Food Standards Agency.- 12.5.7 Ice-Cream (Heat Treatment) Regulations (1959); Liquid Egg (Pasteurization) Regulations (1963).- 12.6 Food Legislation In Some European Countries.- 12.6.1 France.- 12.6.2 Italy.- 12.6.3 Germany.- 12.6.4 Netherlands.- 12.6.5 Food Hygiene Directive (93/43/EEC) implementation.- 12.7 Food Legislation in the USA.- 12.7.1 The GMP regulations.- 12.7.2 Regulations concerning specific foods.- 12.7.3 Microbiological standards in the USA.- 12.8 Food Legislation in Japan and Korea.- 12.8.1 Microbiological Standards in Japan and Korea.- 12.9 Concluding Remarks.- References.